SOCIOLOGY 1. Social and Cultural Change

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1 Department of Sociology SOCIOLOGY 1 Social and Cultural Change 4 th Term, 2018 Lecturer: Ms Janet Chisaka (j.chisaka@ru.ac.za) 1

2 INTRODUCTION There are various ways of describing and explaining social change. Social change is defined as the alteration of social interactions, institutions, stratification systems, and elements of culture over time, and with relatively important consequences (Vago, 1989). Societies are in a constant state of flux (constant change). Some changes are rapid (e.g. current social and cultural change due to computers and mobile phones), and other changes are more gradual (e.g. economic development). Sometimes people adapt quickly to change, and other times people resist change or are slow to adapt to new possibilities (e.g. birth control technology is resisted on religious and cultural grounds). The speed of social change varies from society to society and from time to time within the same society. It is challenging to explain social change in the diverse and complex world of the late 20 th -century to the present day. Theorists from several disciplines have sought to analyse social change. In some instances, they have examined historical events in order to arrive at a better understanding of contemporary changes. It is through theory that we go beyond descriptions of social change toward explanation. A brief discussion of the classical and contemporary theories of social change is provided below. EVOLUTIONARY THEORY Nineteenth-century theories of social change reflect the influence of Charles Darwin s ( ) pioneering work in biological evolution. According to his approach, there has been a continuing progression of successive life forms. For example, since human beings came at a later stage of evolution than reptiles, we represent a higher form of life. Evolutionary theory is modelled on Darwin s biological evolution, and it views society as moving in a definite direction. Early evolutionary theorists generally agreed that society was inevitably progressing to a higher state. They concluded that their behaviour and culture were more advanced than those of earlier civilizations and non-industrial societies (ethnocentrism). Auguste Comte ( ), founder of sociology, was an evolutionary theorist of change. He saw human societies as a moving forward in their thinking from mythology to the scientific method. Similarly, Emile Durkheim ( ) maintained that society progressed from simple to more complex forms of social organization. The writings of Comte and Durkheim are examples of unilinear evolutionary theory. This approach contends that all societies pass through the same successive stages of evolution and inevitably reach the same end. English sociologist Herbert Spencer ( ) used a similar approach: Spencer likened society to a living body with interrelated parts that were moving toward a common destiny. However, neoevolutionary theorists are more likely to picture social change as multi-linear rather than rely on the more limited unilinear perspective. Multi-linear evolutionary theory holds that change can occur in several ways and that it does not inevitably lead in the same direction. Multilinear theorists recognise that human culture has 2

3 evolved along a number of lines. For example, the theory of demographic transition graphically demonstrates that population change in developing nations has not necessarily followed the model evident in industrialized nations. Medical and public health technology was introduced gradually in the developed nations, which gave them time to adjust to falling death rates and resulting rises in the population. However, such technology was imported much more rapidly by developing nations, leading to dramatic population growth and severe pressure on social services and natural resources, including food production. FUNCTIONALIST THEORY Functionalist sociologists are concerned with the role of cultural elements in preserving the social order as a whole. They focus on what maintains a system, not on what changes it. This might seem to suggest that functionalists can offer little of value to the study of social change. Yet, as the work of American sociologist Talcott Parsons demonstrates, functionalists have made a distinctive contribution to this area of sociological investigation. Parsons ( ), a leading proponent of functionalist theory, viewed society as naturally being in a state of equilibrium. By equilibrium, he meant that society tends toward a state of stability or balance. Parsons would view even prolonged labour strikes or civilian riots as temporary disruptions in the status quo rather than as significant alterations in a society s social structure. Thus, according to Parsons equilibrium model, as changes occur in one part of society, adjustments must be made in other parts. Parsons identified four inevitable processes of social change, namely: Differentiation, which refers to the increasing complexity of social organisation (e.g. healthcare carried out by nurses, pharmacists, doctors, physiotherapists etc. instead of one herbalist/sangoma in traditional societies). Adaptive upgrading is when social institutions become more specialised (e.g. doctors specialise as cardiologists, surgeons, obstetricians, orthopaedists etc.). Inclusion of previously excluded groups (based on gender, race, age and social class) into mainstream society (e.g. current affirmative action policy in South Africa). Value generation refers to the development of new values that tolerate and legitimate a great range of activities (e.g. dieting seen as preventive medicine). Parson s approach explicitly incorporates the evolutionary idea of continuing progress, but he stresses balance and stability (moving equilibrium). Society may change, but it remains stable through new forms of integration. In the past kinship ties provided social cohesion, but now laws, judicial processes, new values and belief systems ensure solidarity. The emphasis in the functionalist approach is always on a return to stability (equilibrium) and order after social change has occurred. If a new equilibrium is achieved, the parts of society do not all reach the new balance at the same time (William Ogburn, ). Some parts lag in time behind 3

4 others. Ogburn called this cultural lag and applied it to any situation in which disequilibrium is caused by one part of a society failing to change at the same rate as interrelated parts. He believed that changes in nonmaterial dimensions of culture (e.g. norms, values, and beliefs) lag behind changes in material culture (technology and inventions). To him, significant social change occurs when nonmaterial culture is forced to change due to a prior change in material culture (e.g. sexual norms, values and beliefs still lag behind birth control technology in most parts of the world, particularly amongst Catholics). CONFLICT THEORY While the functionalist perspective assumes society as inherently stable, conflict theorists view society as unstable. The conflict perspective emphasises the separate parts of society and the conflict that occurs among them. From this perspective, social change is the result of struggles between groups for scarce resources. Social change occurs as these conflicts are resolved. Conflict perspective emerge from the writings of Karl Marx ( ), who largely focussed on conflict between economically determined social classes within society, but neo-marxists include other areas in which they see conflict at work (e.g. ethnicity, gender, race, political parties, religious groups etc.). In all these areas, the basic source of conflict is assumed to be the unequal distribution of power and authority (Vago, 1989). COURSE OBJECTIVE AND LEARNING OUTCOMES The aim of this course is to offer you an engaging and critical sociological perspective on social change. Theories of social change will ground your understanding of the underlying trends in the evolution and transformation of human societies. By the end of the course you will be able to: Provide a sociological definition of social change. Become familiar with different sociological theories/perspectives, including feminist ideas of social change, and be able to apply them in your tutorial assignments, test and exam questions. Explain social and cultural change, particularly demographic change. Understand the impact of feminism in contemporary African societies. You are expected to read widely. Do not restrict yourself to readings on the course outline and on RUConnected (Social & Cultural Change enrolment key: 2018SCC). However, the extra readings must be academic books, journals, and electronic articles. You are encouraged to draw on current media articles/movies/tv series and personal experiences to support your arguments in the tutorial assignments, test and exam. 4

5 Please refer to Handout No.1 (available on RUConnected) for the rules regarding the university s policy on plagiarism as well as the department s rules regarding formatting, referencing, and late submission of assignments. COURSE STRUCTURE Week 1: Conceptualising, Defining and Theorising about Social Change (3 6 September) What is social change? Harper (1993: 4) and other sociologists define social change as the significant alteration of social structure and cultural patterns through time. This definition underpins various considerations of social change throughout the course. There are many theories of social change, ranging from those that explain specific factors that cause small-scale changes to abstract and broader theories which attempt to understand underlying trends in the evolution and transformation of human societies. The discussions this week will help you understand the key forces that underpin explanations and characterisations of social change in South Africa. Prescribed reading (on RUConnected) Thomas, C. (2014). Social change. In: P. Stewart & J. Zaaiman (eds.). Sociology: A South African introduction, pp Cape Town: Juta & Company. Recommended readings Haferkamp, H. & Smelser, N. J. (eds.). (1992). Social change and modernity. Berkeley: University of California Press. Introductory chapter. (RU online resource OPAC). Harper, C.L. (1993). Exploring social change. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Chapter 1. Lauer, R. H. (1991). Perspectives on social change. Massachusetts: Allyn & Bacon. Chapters 1-5. Moore, W.E. (1963). Social change. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Chapter 1. Strasser, H. & Randall, S. C. (1981). An introduction to theories of social change. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Chapters 1-4. Vago, S. (1989). Social change. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Chapters 1-3. Weeks 2 & 3: Population and Demographic Change (10 20 September) Population growth and density are responsible for many of the major policy issues, such as urban overcrowding, pollution, and family planning. Changes in the size, density, and composition of a population have an important impact on social change. The focus in this section is on demographic transition, which involves the study of the current state and changes over time in the size, distribution, and composition of human populations. We will also include epidemiological transition, which is used to demarcate the change from predominantly infectious causes of death, still common in poorer countries, to degenerative diseases which have become the predominant cause of death in richer countries (Wilkinson, 1996). 5

6 Prescribed reading (on RUConnected) du Plessis, G. (2014). Population. In: P. Stewart & J. Zaaiman (eds.). Sociology: A South African introduction, pp Cape Town: Juta & Company. Recommended websites Weeks 4 & 5: Change in the Family (25 September 4 October) The industrial revolution and the subsequent urbanization, modernization, and economic development of society are seen by most sociologists as the cause of significant changes in the structure and functions of the family. They believe that industrialization was/is instrumental in transforming the traditional large, authoritarian, relatively stable rural family system into the more egalitarian, emotionally freer, and less sexually stratified nuclear family. There is a common societal belief that the nuclear family is in decline, due to rising rates of divorce, extramarital sex and abortion, and rising numbers of single-parent families. In this section, we look at how the family, both as a living arrangement and as a social institution is not disappearing at all but instead is becoming more diverse and complex as it adapts to changing social and economic circumstances (Newman & Grauerholz, 2002: 26). Prescribed reading (on RUConnected) Makiwane, M., Gumede, N. A., Makoae, M. & Vawda, M. (2017). Family in a changing South Africa: structures, functions and the welfare of members. South African Review of Sociology, Vol. 48 (2), pp Recommended readings Giddens, A. (2006). Sociology (fifth edition). Cambridge: Polity Press. Chapter 7 Giddens, A. (2009). Sociology (sixth edition). Cambridge: Polity Press. Chapter 9 Haralambos, M & Holborn, M. (2004). Sociology: Themes and perspectives (sixth edition). London: HarperCollins Publishers. Chapter 8 Haralambos, M & Holborn, M. (2008). Sociology: Themes and perspectives (seventh edition) London: HarperCollins. Chapter 8. Newman, D. M. & Grauerholz, L. (2002). Sociology of families. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press. Part 1: pages 1-77, Chapters 7, 8, 11, 12 & 13 Week 6: Feminism (8 11 October) The structure and readings for this section will be placed on RUConnected. Week 7: Course Summary (15 18 October). 6

7 COURSE EVALUATION There will be a class test on 5 October from 7pm 8pm. Venue: Barratt 1 (Surnames A L) and Barratt 2 (Surnames M Z). The test counts 100% of the term mark and is mandatory, as it is part of your DP requirements for Sociology 1. On the day of the test, you must be seated at least five minutes before the test begins. In the November examination, you must answer two essay questions, one compulsory and one from a choice of three questions. 7

8 TUTORIAL ASSIGNMENTS Although the assignment marks do not count towards your term mark, it is in your interest to pay attention to each tutorial because one of the tutorial questions will be one of the three optional questions in the November exam. Tutors will guide you through the set criteria for each of the three assignments, which must be followed. They will also provide feedback that should help in developing your academic writing and critical thinking skills. All assignments must have a minimum of three references and must not exceed 2 pages (800 words) in length. Tutorial 1: 13 th & 14 th September Sociologists define social change as any significant alteration, modification, or transformation in the organisation and operation of social activity. As a sociologist, when you study change, you must first identify the social activity that has changed or is changing. Assignment: What has changed in the way you date compared to how your grandparents dated? What factors triggered this change? What are the consequences of the change? Assignment Criteria Introduction, write 2-3 sentences describing what the assignment is about; Identify three to four factors that have triggered the change in dating; Discuss in 2-3 paragraphs the consequences of this change; Conclusion, write 2-3 sentences summarising your discussion; Reference your work in text and list references at the end of the assignment (Refer to Department of Sociology Handout 1 electronic copy available on RUconnected). Tutorial 2: 20 th & 21 st September Read du Plessis (2014: section 12 Population and development) Assignment: Do you agree with the Malthusianism perspective on population which explains that poverty is a consequence of rapid population growth? Or, do you agree with the Marxist critique of Malthusianism which asserts that poverty is not a consequence of rapid population growth, but is a consequence of capitalism? 8

9 Assignment Criteria Introduction, write 2-3 sentences describing what the assignment is about; Briefly describe Thomas Malthus principle of population; Discuss in 2-3 paragraphs which position you agree with and provide evidence to support your answer; Conclusion, write 2-3 sentences summarising your discussion; Reference your work in text and list references at the end of the assignment (Refer to Department of Sociology Handout 1 electronic copy available on RUConnected). Tutorial 3: 29 th & 30 th September Read Smit (2006) New fatherhood fact or fiction? The perceptions and experiences of fathers in South Africa. Assignment: Do you think the concept of new fatherhood is fact or fiction? Assignment Criteria You must read Smit (2006: & 73); Introduction, write 2-3 sentences describing what the assignment is about; Discuss in 3-4 paragraphs whether new fatherhood is fact or fiction. The discussion must include: o South African and global forces that have contributed to the emergence of the new fatherhood phenomenon; Conclusion (2-3 sentences) summarising your discussion; Reference your work in text and list references at the end of the assignment (Refer to Department of Sociology Handout 1 electronic copy available on RUconnected). 9