UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI Maiduguri, Nigeria CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING MANAGEMENT

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1 UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI Maiduguri, Nigeria CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING MANAGEMENT ANT 100: INTRODUCTION TO ANTHROPOLOGY UNITS: 2

2 STUDY GUIDE GENERAL INFORMATION Course Code and Title: ANT 100: Introduction to Anthropology Credit Unit: 2 Year: 2015 Total Hours - 28 two per Week of Study. For any queries or Questions contact the Course Lecturer Using your through the Centre for Distance Learning Portal. You are welcome to this study Unit. Each Unit is arranged to simplify your study. In each topic of the Unit we have introduction, learning outcome, in-text information, in-text questions and answers, summary and self assessment exercises. In-text questions and answers serve as motivation for your reading and to encourage to pay attention to major points in the text. Tutors will be available at designated contact Centre for Tutorial. Meet them to resolve your questions and other guide. The Centre expects you to plan your work well. Should you wish to read further you could supplement the study with more information from the list of references and suggested reading available in each study Unit. PRACTICE EXERCISES SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES (SAES) This is provided at the end of each topic or Study Session. The exercises can help you to assess whether or not you have actually studied and understood the topic/study session. Solutions to the exercises are provided at the end of the Study Unit for you to assess yourself. HOW TO PREPARE FOR EXAMINATION To prepare for the examination you should read and understand the Study Materials provided for you on C.D.ROM, prints or downloads from the Portal. Other things you need to prepare for examination include understanding all sample questions at the end of every Study Session/topic Reading the suggested/recommended reading texts. ASSESSMENTS -The continuous assessment for all courses consist of 30%. -The Examination shall make up 70% of the total Marks. -Feedback and advice is a component of the continuous assessment The Examination shall be conducted at the Centre for Distance learning (Centre). Students are to come to the Centre on the Examination date with all the necessary requirements. The Examination is Computer based or e-testing one. 2

3 STUDY SESSION: THE STUDY OF ANTHROPOLOGY INTRODUCTION Anthropology is the study of humankind. The anthropologist is concerned primarily with a single species, HOMO SAPIENS - the human species, its ancestors and near relatives. Because the anthropologist is a member of the same species that is being studied, it is difficult, if not impossible, to be completely objective in this pursuit. However, anthropologists have found that the use of the scientific approach produces useful generalizations about human behaviour. With the scientific approach, anthropologists are better able to arrive at a realistic and unbiased understanding of human diversity. LEARNING OUTCOMES At the end of this session, you should be able to i. explain the importance of ethnography in anthropological study and ii. describe all the key terms within the broad concept of culture and functionalism DEFINITION OF ANTHROPOLOGY Anthropology is defined as the study of human communalities and differences and expressly includes the entire temporal and geographic range of human kind in its scope. The devotion of anthropology to the study of all peoples regardless of where and when they lived has cast more light on the human nature PRACTICES OF ANTHROPOLOGY The discipline of anthropology may be divided into two fundamental areas, namely physical and cultural anthropology. (1) PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY Physical anthropology is that aspect of anthropology which is primarily concerned with humans as biological organisms. The physical anthropologist applies knowledge of genetics and biochemistry to achieve a fuller understanding of human variation and evolution. 3

4 Physical anthropology lays the foundation for the study of humans as cultural animals, which is the branch of anthropology known as Cultural Anthropology. Cultural Anthropology is divided into specific fields of archaeology, linguistics and ethnology. Although each of these areas has its own special interests, all deal with cultural data. (2) ARCHAEOLOGY Archaeology is the branch of cultural anthropology concerned with the study of material objects as a means of describing and explaining human behaviour. For the most part, it focuses on the material aspects of the human past because material objects rather than ideas are often what survive of the human past. The archaeologist studies the tools and other enduring relics that remain as the legacy of extinct cultures. (3) ETHNOLOGY While the archaeologist studies cultures of the past, the ethnologist concentrates on cultures of the present. While the archaeologist focuses on the study of material objects to learn about human behaviour, the ethnologist concentrates on the observation of human behaviour as it can be seen and discussed with those whose culture is to be understood. In other word, ethnologists are primarily concerned with cultures as they can be observed in action. (4) LINGUISTICS The branch of cultural anthropology that studies human languages is called linguistics. Perhaps the most distinctive human feature is the ability to speak. Linguistics may deal with the description of a language (the way it forms a sentence or conjugates a verb) or with the history of languages (the way languages develop and influence each other with the passage of time). Ultimately, language that allows people to preserve and transmit their culture from generation to generation EXPLANATION OF SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN ANTHROPOLOGY 4

5 In anthropology, like in other disciplines, we use many concepts to describe the subject matter we deal with. In this topic, you will be introduced to only some basic concepts in anthropology. We shall be studying the following sub-topics: I. Ethnography II. Culture III. Functionalism Within each of these sub-topics, which are themselves concepts in anthropology, we shall learn quite a number of concepts that are basic concepts in the discipline of anthropology in addition to learning about these broad sub-topics Ethnography Fundamental to the ethnologist s approach is ethnography or fieldwork. It has been observed with some validity that the ethnographer is an archaeologist who catches his archaeology alive. Whenever possible, the ethnologist becomes an ethnographer by going out to live among the people under study, eating their food, speaking their language, participating in their social activities such as marriage and death ceremony etc Participant Observation The anthropologist studying a group of people must be a meticulous observer in order to be able to get a broad overview of a culture without placing undue stress on any of its components. Only by discovering how all social institutions political, economic and religious fit together can the ethnographer begin to understand the culture system. The popular image of an ethnographic fieldwork is that it takes place among far-off, exotic people. 5

6 The Concept of Culture The concept of culture was first developed by Sir Edward Burnett Taylor, a British anthropologist, in He defined culture as that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. One problem with the definition is that it treats ideas and objects as equivalent. Recent definitions tend to put less stress on tangible things and behaviour and more on abstract values and beliefs that lie behind observable things and behaviour. To put it another way, culture is not observable behaviour but rather the values and beliefs which lie behind behaviour and which it reflects Modern Definition of Culture Culture is a set of rules or standards which, when acted upon by the members of a society, produce behaviour that falls within a range or variance the members consider proper and acceptable Characteristics of Culture Culture as a way of life of a group of people has many characteristics. The characteristics of culture are as follows:. i. Culture is shared Culture is a set of shared ideal values and standards of behaviour. It is the common denominator that makes the actions of individuals intelligible to the group. ii. Culture is Learned All culture is learned, not biologically inherited. One learns a culture by growing up in it. Ralph Linton referred to culture as humanity s social heredity. The process whereby a culture is transmitted from one generation to the next is called enculturation. 6

7 iii. Culture is Symbolic Leslie White, an American anthropologist, contends that all human behaviour originate in the use of symbols. Art, religion and money involve the use of symbols. The most important symbolic aspect of culture is language, which is the substitution of words for objects. iv. Culture is Integrated The tendency for all aspects of a culture such as economic, political and the social to function as an interrelated whole is called integration Functions of Culture i. A Culture must provide for the production and distribution of goods and services necessary for life. ii. It must provide for biological continuity through the reproduction of its members. iii. It must acculturate new members so that they can become functioning adults. iv. It must maintain order between its members and outsiders. v. It must motivate its members to survive and engage in those activities necessary for survival. THEORIES ABOUT CULTURES AND SOCIETY: a. Evolution b. Diffusionism a) Evolutionism The theory of evolutionism assumes that complex societies develop out of simple ones. Some evolutionists argue that the so-called primitive societies that still exist today are survivals from the past. Max Muller and Mac Lennan were among the earliest. b) Diffusionism 7

8 The theory of diffusionism was propounded by scholars who opposed the evolutionists theory. Diffusionism argues that evolution alone cannot account for all the difference between the primitive or small-scale societies. Diffusionists are interested n the distribution of cultural traits and elements which means they hope to find out how cultural traits have diffused from a common origin or origins. The diffusionists argue that all cultural traits were originally developed in Egypt and subsequently spread throughout the world in waves of emigration. The diffusionists are condemned mainly for atomizing culture into elements. The best-known early diffusionist was F.F. Graebncr Functionalism An important school of anthropology which arose in opposition to the extreme evolutionist and diffusionist positions is known as functionalism. The functionalists look into contemporary cultures rather than history as a means of studying the role of specific cultural traits in maintaining a social system. Functionalism has two different approaches put forward by two different theoreticians. 1. A. R. RADCLIFFE-BROWN One of the major theoreticians of the functionalist school was the British anthropologist Radcliffe-Brown. The approach of Radcliffe-Brown and his followers is referred to as Structural Functionalism, to distinguish it from the approach of another functionalist Bronislaw Malinowski. The structural-functionalists maintain that each custom and belief of a society has a specific function that serves to perpetuate the structure of that society. I.e., its ordered arrangement of parts so that the society s continued existence is possible. 2. BROWNISLAW MALINOWSKI Another major theoretician of the functionalist school was the polish-born anthropologist Brownislaw Malinowski. Malinowski argued that people everywhere share certain biological and psychological needs and that the ultimate function of all the cultural institutions is to 8

9 fulfil those needs.the nature of the institution, according to Malinowski, is determined by its function. Malinowski outlined three fundamental levels of needs that he claimed had to be resolved by all cultures. The needs are as follows: 1. A culture must provide for biological needs such as the need for food and procreation. 2. A culture must provide for instrumental needs, such as the need for law and education. 3. A culture must provide for integrative needs such as religion and art. The functionalist approach laid good foundation for ethnographic as well as methods of scientific observation. ITQ 1: What is the importance of ethnography in anthropological study? ITA: Ethnographers concentrate on present culture. ITQ 2: What are the key terms in culture and functionalism? ITA: The key concepts are: knowledge, belief art, law, morals and crimes. ITA: What is anthropology? ITQ 1: It is the study of human commonalities and differences and expressly includes the entire temporal and geographic range of human kind in its scope. ITA 2: Culture is shared and learned? (True or False) ITQ 3: What is ethnology? ITA 3: Ethnology is the study that focuses on observation of human behaviour as it can be seen and discussed with those whose culture is to be understood. 1.4 SUMMARY In this study session 1, you have learnt about the concept and importance of ethnography and anthropological study. You have also learnt the key points within the broad concepts of culture and functionalism. 9

10 The anthropologist studying a group of people, must be a meticulous observer in order to be able to get a broad overview of a culture without placing undue stress on any of its components parts. Anthropology is the systematic study of human kind. In employing a scientific approach, anthropologists seek to produce useful generalizations about human behaviour and to arrive at an unbiased understanding of human diversity. Three areas within cultural anthropology are archaeology, which studies material objects to explain human behaviour, linguistics, which studies languages, and ethnology, which focuses on human behaviour as it can be observed in action. Culture is the way of life of a society, and it has to do with all learned behaviour passed on from one generation to another. The functionalists, in opposition to the evolutionists and diffusionists, looked into contemporary cultures rather than history as a means of studying the role of specific cultural traits in maintaining a social system. 1.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE SAQ 1:1 (Test and learning outcome 1:1) i. State the importance of ethnography in anthropological study? SAQ 1:2 (Test and learning outcome 1:2) ii. What are the key terms in culture and functionalism? Answer 1:1 They are important because they concentrate on present culture. Answer 1:2 Some of the key concepts are knowledge, belief, art, law, morals and customs. 10

11 SAQ: Why is ethnography very important to the study of anthropology? SAQ: State the functions of culture. SAQ: Differentiate between structural-functionalism and functionalism. 1.6 REFERENCES/ SUGGESTED READING Mortion, Fried The Study of Anthropology. New York: Crowell Keesing, Roger. M. Cultural anthropology: A contemporary peripeaiyes New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, Voget, Fred W.A. A History of Ethnology. New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston,

12 STUDY SESSION 2: INTRODUCTION TO ANTHROPOLOGY 2.1 INTRODUCTION Humans as Animals Human beings are not separate from nature or even in nature. Rather we are of nature one among millions of species. Part of the task of anthropology is understanding the human species in relation to the rest of the animal kingdom and identifying the continuities and discontinuities between ourselves and other animals. In what ways are we like other animals and what is it that makes us specifically humans? 2.2 LEARNING OUTCOME At the end of this Session, you should be able to do the following: i. Define physical anthropology and differentiate it from other aspects of anthropology. ii. Explain the evolutionary process, that is, how humans developed. iii. Define some concepts which are relevant to the study of physical anthropology e.g. fossils, primates DEFINITION OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY Physical anthropology is that aspect of anthropology which is primarily concerned with humans as biological organisms. Physical anthropologists study the biology of both modern human populations and their fossil remains HUMAN IN EVOLUTIONARY CONTEXT Anthropology includes the study of primates other than humans in order to explain why and how humans developed as they did. One might properly question the value of studying primates other than humans when it is humans and their distinctive cultural capacities that concerns us. But humans did not start out as cultural beings. Indeed, some evolutionists think that they did not even start out as humans. Their roots, like those of the other living primates, 12

13 lie in ancient time and in less specialized biological creatures. Their development was influenced by the same evolutionary processes. It is believed, therefore, that by studying the environment of those times, the anatomical features which evolved in response to that environment and the rudimentary cultural adaptations of those primates who share in the human ancestral heritage, we will draw closer to an understanding of how humans developed as they did ENVIRONMENT Primates emerged during a period when the earth was undergoing radical changes. The geographical changes favoured the distribution of forest, grasslands and deserts. A new wild climate favoured the spread of dense tropical and sub tropical forests over much of the earth. This led to an increase in the numbers and spread of grasses, ivies, shrubs and other flowering plants such as the trees that are found in the forests. Forestation set the stage for the evolutionary development from the rodent-like ground existence to tree living. Forests also provided our early ancestors with new ecological niches or functional positions in their habitats. The way in which early primates anatomically adapted has considerable relevance for humans, their close relatives ANATOMICAL FEATURES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PRIMATES The primates order includes the lower primates tarsiers, lemurs and tree shrews while the higher primates are new and old world monkeys, anthropoid apes and humans. As the early primates became tree dwelling, various modifications took place in dental characteristics, sense organs, the brain and skeletal structure that helped them to adapt to their environment. Learned social behaviour, particularly in gorillas and chimpanzees, also aided survival in an arboreal environment. Chimpanzees live in structured social groups and express their sociability through 13

14 communication by visual and vocal signals. They also exhibit an ability to learn from experience and can make and use tools. Gorillas also live and travel in groups and communicate visually and by calling HUMAN ANCESTORS It is believed that all of the physical and cultural changes that took place in the early hominids came at about the same time through a process of mutual reinforcement. There are two types of known human ancestors, namely: 1. Ramapithecus and 2. Australopithecus 1. Ramapithecus is regarded as the earliest member of the human family based on its jaw structure and dentition and is believed to have exhibited a rudimentary bipedal locomotion so that its hands were freed for other uses. 2. Australopithecus known from many fossil remains was more human in appearance and in physiological characteristics A AFRICANUS, A ROBUSTUS AND A BOISE Most anthropologists divide the Australopithecus into three distinct species, namely, A Africanus, A. Robustus, and A. Boise. A Africanus had large jaws relative to its brain case; A Robustus had a large brain case relative to its jaws. This hominid, fully bipedal and able to run erect, was well equipped for generalized food gathering in the savannah environment. A Boise, a super robust species, differs from the former in superficial respects such as being heavier and with more robust physical frame. It is of major significance that some kinds of Australopithecus were meateaters and toolmakers. The inclusion of meat in the diet provided a kind of nutrition that could support a larger brain, 14

15 once it evolved. Tool making, which depended on fine manipulation of the hands, and hunting, which required analytical thinking, put a premium on a more sophisticated nervous system which will play a part in the evolution of a more developed brain. ITQ: Mention the human ancestors you know and discuss their anatomical features. ITA: There are two types of human ancestors, namely: I. Ramapithecus II. Australopithecus Ramapithecus is regarded as the earliest member of the human family based on its jaw structure and dentition and is believed to have exhibited a rudimentary bipedal locomotion, so that its hands were freed for other uses. 2.4 SUMMARY Physical anthropology includes the study of primates other than humans in order to explain why and how humans developed as they did. As the early primates became tree dwelling, various modifications took place in their physiological characteristics. Learned social behaviour, particularly in gorillas and chimpanzees, also aided survival in an arboreal environment. All of the physical and cultural changes that took place in the early hominids came at about the same time through a process of mutual reinforcement. Ramapithecus is regarded as the earliest human ancestor based on its jaw structure, dentition and rudimentary bipedal locomotion. Australopithecus, another early human ancestor, was more human in appearance. Australopithecus was of three types: the A. Africanus, the A Robustus and the A Boise. 2.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE SAQ: Mention the human ancestors you know and discuss their anatomical features. SAQ: Discuss the influence of the environment on the evolutionary process of primates. 15

16 SAQ: Define the following concepts which are relevant to the study of physical anthropology. a) Fossils b) Primates c) Bipedal locomotion d) Hominids 2.6 REFERENCES/ SUGGESTED READING Brace, C. Loring, Harry Nelson and Neol Korn. Atlas of Fossil Man, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Hester, James J. Introduction to Archaeology, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Jolly, Alison, The Evolution of Primate Behaviour, New York: Macmillan, Lasker, Gabriel.W. Physical Anthropology 2nd ed, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,

17 STUDY SESSION 3: THE EMERGENCE OF CULTURAL ESSENTIALS 3.1 INTRODUCTION With the emergence of the genus, homo, culture became a major force in human evolution by imposing its own selective pressures. Moreover, culture itself evolved slowly at first but with increasing rapidity, so that evolution was no longer a matter of biological change alone. Anthropologists have divided the evolving homo lineage into three successive species, namely: i) HOMO-HABILIS (ii) HOMO-ERECTUS (iii) HOMO-SAPIENS 3.2 LEARNING OUTCOME At the end of this session, you should be able to: i. To know the types of homo lineage. ii. To be able to explain the physical and cultural variations of the homos. iii. Be able to define the concepts relevant to the study of physical anthropology. The concepts are as follows: a. Evolution gradual changes in a species. b. Bipedal walking on two feet. c. Australopithecus a close relative of the human species who lived a million years ago. d. Ecology the study of the interrelationships of organisms and their environment. e. Fossils the preserved remains of plants and animals that lived in the past. f. Anthropoid higher Primates such as monkeys, apes and humans. g. Arboreal tree dwelling or dwelling on the tree. h. Hominid a member of the family of humans. 17

18 i. Anatomy the scientific study of the structure of human and animal bodies. j. Adaptation the process of adjustments of a species to a specific environment; or a particular trait that makes species more suited to and successful in its environment HOMO HABILIS The earliest recognized species of HOMO is HOMO HABILIS whose known remains date back as far as 2 million years ago. The most distinctive feature of HOMO HABILIS, compared with Australopithecus, is its larger brain case suggesting a greater degree of intelligence. The development of tools, for example, made HOMO HABILIS a more accomplished hunter and gatherer. Greater dependence on this way of life in turn created selective pressure for more efficient bipedalism. At the same time, larger brains and more dexterous hands made possible the planning and production of better tools. Culture had entered our ancestors adaptive pattern and as time went by, it became an increasingly important part of the pattern HOMO ERECTUS The next figure in human evolution is been designated Homo erectus. No previous hominids were as widespread as Homo erectus whose remains have been found in Asia, Europe and Africa. In spite of this broad distribution, the fossils reveal no more significant physical variations than are seen in modern human population. Fossils indicate that Homo erectus had a larger brain than Australopithecus, one which was within the lower range of modern brain size. The dentition was fully human, though large by modern standards. The leg and foot bones indicate that bipedal locomotion was improved over Australopithecus and that Homo erectus could probably walk and run as well as modern people. Homo erectus developed culture as we might expect given the larger brain. Homo erectus had outstripped its predecessors in cultural development. From sites in China and Europe, we have the first clear evidence for 18

19 the use of fire for protection, warmth and cooking. For example at Zhoukoudian, a fossil site about 30 miles from Peking (now Beijing), thousands of broken and charred bones of deer, sheep, antelope, roebuck, small hares, camels, bison and elephants were found which indicate that homo erectus was an accomplished hunter who cooked food. It is likely that Homo erectus used fire that was originally started by lightening or through spontaneous combustion rather than by instruments developed for kindling fire. However, the use of fire itself represents a very significant step in human cultural adaptation. It may have influenced the forces of natural selection which previously favoured individuals with heavy jaws and large, sharp teeth needed for chewing and ripping uncooked meat, thus, paving the way for reduction in tooth size as well as supportive facial architecture. Like tools and intelligence, fire gave people more control over their environment. The technological efficiency of Homo erectus is evidenced in a refined tool making, with the development of the hand axe and later specialized tools for hunting, butchering, food processing, hide scraping and defence. Efficiency in technology and improvement in hunting techniques, in language and communication reflected a considerable advance in organizational ability. 19

20 3.3.3 HOMO SAPIENS NEANDERTHALS The fossils remains of the Homo sapiens dating back 200,000 years was discovered in the l930s and 1940s. The most outstanding characteristic of these new humans was apparently a larger brain well within the range of modern human brain size. A probable descendant of this primitive Homo sapiens population is Neanderthals. There are two types of Neanderthals: Classic and Generalized. The Classic was so called because it was the first type to be found. Classic Neanderthal was typically heavier and lived in Europe. The Generalised was lighter and more modern in form and facial features and lived in the Near East. Apparently, several local varieties of Neanderthals were in existence within which there was a good deal of individual variation. Adaptation to the environment for the Neanderthals was of course both physical and cultural. Neanderthals extensive use of fire was essential to survival in an arctic climate like that of Europe at the time. They lived in small bands or single-family units both in the open and in caves and undoubtedly communicated by speech. Remains indicate that they believed in some form of afterlife and that religious belief played a part in their lives CRO-MAGNONS In what is called Upper Palaeolithic time about 35,000-40,000 years ago, the Neanderthals were replaced by people who possessed a physical appearance similar to ours. Those people who were true Homo sapiens are usually called Cro-Magnons. Cro-Magnons remains revealed considerable physical variability as one might expect from any human population. However, these people had characteristically modern looking faces. At that time in human evolution, culture had become a more potent force than biology; people no longer require physical bulk for survival. Fast technological developments had 20

21 contributed to the increasing complexity of the brain by the time of the Neanderthals and this complexity now enabled people to create an even more sophisticated technology. One important aspect of Cro-Magnon culture in the West is the art of this period. The Cro- Magnon level of artistic proficiency is certainly amazing; humans had not produced artwork of this calibre before this time. Tools and weapons were decorated with engravings of animal figures. Pendants made of bone and ivory were created and there was sculpting in clay. More spectacular and quiet unlike anything undertaken by the earlier Neanderthals are the cave paintings in Spain and France. Apart from decorative function, these paintings served a religio-magical function, which attest to a highly sophisticated aesthetic sensibility. ITQ: Describe what the fossils indicate about the Homo erectus. ITA: One important aspect of Cro-Magnon culture in the West is the art of this period. The Cro-Magnon level of the artistic proficiency is certainly amazing; humans had not produced artwork of this calibre before this time. Tools and weapons were decorated with engraving of animals figures. Pendants made of bones ivory were created and there was sculpting in clay. 3.4 SUMMARY There are three types of Homo, namely as follows (1) Homo habilis (2) Homo erectus (3 and Homo sapiens. Homo habilis, the earliest known human species, had lager brain case strongly suggesting a greater degree of intelligence. Homo habilis was probably the first systematic hunter-gatherer and extensive stone toolmaker. Homo erectus, the human species that flourished from about 1.5 million to 300,000 years ago, had certain unique characteristics, including a very thick, large brain case and moderate teeth; but its skeleton was functionally modern. Homo-erectus populations are generally quite similar; they do show some 21

22 geographical variation. Homo sapiens are humans who lived from about 250,000 to 40,000 years ago, sufficiently advanced to be assigned to our own species. The most outstanding characteristics of these new humans were apparently a large brain well within the range of modem human brain size. There are two types of Homo sapiens namely as follows: i) The Neanderthal who live in Europe and the Near East and ii) Cro-Magnon who lived in Western Europe SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE SAQ: Describe what the fossils indicate about Homo erectus. SAQ: Differentiate between the Neanderthals and the Cro-Magnon. SAQ: Briefly describe one important aspect of Cro-Magnon culture in the West. 3.6 REFERENCES/ SUGGESTED READING Brace, C. Loring, Harry Nelson and Neol Korn. Atlas of Fossil Man, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, White, Edmund,. The First Man. New York: Time-Life Books, Pilbeam, David, The Ascent of Man: An introduction to Human Evolution. New York: Macmillan, Lasker, Gabriel.W. Physical Anthropology 2nd ed, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Lawick-Goodall, Jan C. Van. In the Shadow of Man, New York: Dell,

23 STUDY SESSION 4: VARIATION IN MODERN HOMO SAPIENS INTRODUCTION Studying Human Civilisation Human beings belong to a single species. So, they have many more similarities than differences. Nevertheless, the degree of physical variation in modern Homo sapiens is very great. Humans display a high degree of polymorphism, or genetically determined variety within populations. Moreover, the species is decidedly polytypic, with many differences among the population. Some of these variations are continuous, appearing as smooth gradients between extremes. Others are discontinuous, dividing the species into discrete types. The most interesting variations are those that are under genetic control, at least to some degree, and so are subject to evolutionary processes. 4.2 LEARNING OUTCOME At the end of this topic, you should be able to i. explain human variation in terms of similarities and differences and ii. describe where human variations are continuous and where they are discontinuous FACTORS EXPLAINING HUMAN VARIATION CULTURAL FACTORS To explain any pattern of variation, we must often consider cultural factors. Unlike those of most other species, human populations are defined not only geographically but also by many crosscutting social and cultural divisions. These subdivisions of the population may have considerable effects on genotype frequencies. Cultural adaptations have also come to play a role in the process of selection, as in the case of technologically advanced settlers who displaced native populations in many areas. For example, when the English settlers first set foot in North America or the Arab in east Africa, 23

24 they used technologically advanced means such as guns to displace the native populations. Culture may also impose selective forces of its own, thus influencing biological evolution VARIATION IN BLOOD PROTEINS Some of the best-known human physical variations are found in blood proteins. A notable example involves haemoglobin, the red oxygen-carrying protein found inside red blood cells. Chemically, haemoglobin S differs only slightly from normal haemoglobin. This minute difference has massive consequences, however, because people who are homozygous for the haemoglobin S are likely to suffer from sickle-cell anaemia which can result in early death VARIATION RELATED TO DISEASE 1. Malaria and the sickle-cell gene Malaria is suspected to act as a maintaining force in many other polymorphisms besides sickle cell. This reflects the fact that the malaria parasite attacks the red blood cells and blood is easily sampled. In many areas, faciparum malaria is one of the leading causes of death, especially among children. The close correspondence between the distribution of the gene and that of malaria gave genetic clue for a direct relationship between genes and environment to solve puzzles in human variability. 2. Blood Group Substance This is a set of molecules located on the surface of the red blood cells and represents perhaps the most familiar human variation that is under simple genetic control DIET-RELATED VARIATION 24

25 Disease is not the only selective factor that might underlie many forms of human physical variation. What a population eats may be as important an influence on its gene pool as what viruses and bacteria it has to contend with. Differences in diet have probably played an important role in creating variation in the digestive enzymes those proteins that make it possible for the body to break down food chemically. After all, there is a saying - You are what you eat. ITQ: Explain the role of diet related factors in human variation. ITA: What a population eats may be as important an influence on its gene pool as what viruses and bacteria it has to contend with. Differences in diet have probably played an important role in creating variation in the digestive enzymes those proteins that make it possible for the body to break down food chemically. 4.4 SUMMARY Human beings belong to a single species, so they have many more similarities than differences. The degree of physical variation in modern Homo sapiens are caused by many factors such as (1) Cultural factors human populations are defined not only geographically but also by many crosscutting social and cultural division. (2) Blood factors some of the best-known human physical variations are found in blood proteins. (3) Variation Related to Disease Malaria and the sickle-cell genes affect the physical variation of people. (4) Diet-Related Variation What a population eats may be as important an influence on its gene as the viruses and bacteria it has to contend with. Diet plays a big role in human 25

26 variation. 4.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE (1) Explain the role of diet related factors in human variation. (2) Describe the role of cultural factors in human variation. (3) How do blood proteins contribute to human physical variation? 4.6 REFERENCES/ SUGGESTED READING Freeman, W.H. Principles of Human of Genetics 3rd ed. San Francisco: np. nd. Race, R.R. and Sanger, R. Blood Group in Man 6th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Harris, H. Principles of Human Biochemical Genetics 2nd Ed. New York: Elsevier,

27 SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES STUDY SESSION 1: The study of Anthropology. Question 1: Why is ethnography very important to the study of anthropology? Answer: anthropology is important to the study of anthropology because the ethnographer tries to get first class information and data of the people he or she is studying. Usually, ethnographers spend prolonged periods living with the people they study. By eating their food and observing their habits and customs, the ethnographer is able to understand a society s way of life to a far greater extent than any armchair anthropologist ever could; one learns a culture best by learning how to behave and be acceptable in the society in which one is doing fieldwork. Question 2: State the functions of culture. Answer: The functions of cultures are as follows: i. A Culture must provide for the production and distribution of goods and services necessary for life. ii. It must provide for biological continuity through the reproduction of its members. iii. It must acculturate new members so that they can become functioning adults. iv. It must maintain order between its members and outsiders. v. It must motivate its members to survive and engage in those activities necessary for survival. Question: Differentiate between Structural-Functionalism and Functionalism. Answer: The difference between Structural-Functionalism and Functionalism is that Structural-Functionalism maintains that each custom and belief of a society has specific functions that serve to protect the structure of that society - its ordered arrangement of parts so that the society s continuous existence is possible. The work of the anthropologist then is 27

28 to study the ways in which customs and beliefs function to solve the problem of maintaining the system. To the Structural-Functionalism, ceremonies serve to regulate individual conduct and promote a feeling of solidarity among the members of a group. According to this view, the significance of a revivalists meeting, for example, lies in the fact that it serves to bring people together; its religious value is secondary. Functionalism maintains that people everywhere share certain biological and psychological needs and that the ultimate function of all cultural institutions is to fulfil those needs. The nature of the institution is determined by its function. There are three fundamental levels of needs which must be resolved by all cultures. Those needs are as follows: i. A culture must provide for biological needs such as the need or food and procreation. ii. A culture must provide for instrumental needs such as the need for law and education. iii. A culture must provide for integrative needs such as religion and art. STUDY SESSION 2: Introduction to Physical Anthropology. Question 1: Mention the human ancestors you know and discuss their anatomical features. Answer: There are two types of human ancestors, namely as follows: I. Ramapithecus II. Australopithecus Ramapithecus is regarded as the earliest member of the human family based on its jaw structure and dentition and is believed to have exhibited a rudimentary bipedal locomotion so that its hands were freed for other uses. The second known human ancestor is the Australopithecus. Australopithecus known from many fossil remains was more human in appearance and in physiological characteristics. There are three species of Australopithecus namely as follows: A Africanus, A Robustus and 28

29 A Boise. A Africanus had larger brain case relative to it jaws. A Robustus had large jaws relative to its brain case. A Boise, super robust species, differs from the former in superficial respects such as heavier and with a more robust physical frame. QUESTION 2: Discuss the influence of the environment on the evolutionary process of the primates. ANSWER: The environment influenced the evolutionary process of the primates in the following ways. Forestation set the stage for the evolutionary development from a rodent-like ground existence to tree living. Forest also provided our early ancestors with new ecological niches or functional positions in their habitats. The relatively small size of the early primates allowed them to exploit the smaller branches of trees which larger and heavier competitors and predators could not follow. The access to the smaller branches also opened up an abundant new food supply. The primates were able to gather leaves, flowers, fruits, insects, birds eggs etc. The move to an arboreal existence brought a combination of the problem of earth bound existence and those of flight. Animals living on the ground developed a slower-paced, more flexible relationship to the environment. The way in which early primates anatomically adapted has considerable relevance for humans, their closer relative. QUESTION 3: Define the following concepts (1) Evolution (2) Australopithecus (3) Ecology (4) Arboreal (5) Fossils (6) Bipedal (7) Hominid (8) Anatomy (9) Adaptation (10) Anthropoid ANSWER: The definitions of the concepts are as follows: a. Evolution gradual changes in a species. b. Bipedal walking on two feet. 29

30 c. Australopithecus a close relative of the human species who lived a million years ago. d. Ecology the study of the interrelationships of organisms and their environment. e. Fossils the preserved remains of plants and animals that lived in the past. f. Anthropoid higher Primates such as monkeys, apes and humans. g. Arboreal tree dwelling or dwelling on the tree. h. Hominid a member of the family of humans. i. Anatomy the scientific study of the structure of human and animal bodies. j. Adaptation the process of adjustments of a species to a specific environment; or a particular trait that makes species more suited to and successful in its environment. STUDY SESSION 3: THE EMERGENCE OF CULTURAL ESSENTIALS. QUESTION 1: Describe what the fossils indicated about the Homo erectus. ANSWERS Fossils indicate that Homo erectus had a large brain than Australopithecus, one that was within the range of modern brain size. The dentition was fully human, though large by modern standards. The leg and foot bones indicate that bipedal locomotion was improved over Australopithecus and that Homo erectus could probably walk and run as well as modern people. Culture developed as one might expect given the larger brain. Homo erectus had outstripped its predecessors in cultural development. QUESTION 2: Differentiate between the Neanderthals and the Cro-Magnons. ANSWER: A primitive descendant of Homo sapiens population is the Neanderthal. The most outstanding characteristic of this new human was apparently a larger brain well within the range of modern human brain size. There are two types of Neanderthals: Classic and Generalized. Classic is so called because this was the first type to be found. Classic Neanderthal was typically heavier and lived in Europe. The Generalized type was lighter and more modern in form and facial features and lived in the Near East. The Neanderthals were 30

31 replaced by people who possessed a physical appearance similar to ours. Those people who were true Homo sapiens are usually called Cro-Magnons. Cro-Magnons remains revealed considerable physical variability as one might expect from any human population. The Cro- Magnons had characteristically modern looking faces. QUESTION 3: Briefly describe one important aspect of Cro-Magnon culture in the West. ANSWER: One important aspect of Cro-Magnon culture in the West is the art of this period. The Cro-Magnon level of the artistic proficiency is certainly amazing; humans had not produced artwork of this calibre before this time. Tools and weapons were decorated with engraving of animals figures. Pendants made of bones and ivory were created and there was sculpting in clay. STUDY SESSION 4: VARIATION IN MODERN HOMO SAPIENS QUESTION 1: Explain the role of diet related factor in human variation. ANSWER: What a population eats may be as important an influence on its gene pool as what viruses and bacteria it has to contend with. Differences in diet have probably played an important role in creating variation in the digestive enzymes those proteins that make it possible for the body to break down food chemically. QUESTION 2: Describe the role of cultural factors in human variation. ANSWER: Cultural factors play important roles in human physical variation. Cultural adaptations have also come to play a role in the process of selection, as in the case of technologically advanced settlers who displaced native populations in many areas. For example, when the English settlers first set foot in North America or the Arab in East Africa, they used technologically advanced means such as guns to displace the native populations. Culture may also impose selective forces of its own, thus influencing biological evolution. 31

32 QUESTION 3: How does a blood protein contribute in physical human variation? ANSWER: Some of the best-known human physical variations are found in the blood proteins. A notable example involves haemoglobin, the red, oxygen protein found inside red blood cells. 32