THIRD SEMESTER ELECTRONICS - II BASIC ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS LAB DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

THIRD SEMESTER ELECTRONICS - II BASIC ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS LAB DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING Prepared By: Checked By: Approved By: Engr. Saqib Riaz Engr. M.Nasim Khan Dr.Noman Jafri Lecturer (Lab) Senior Lab Engineer Dean Electrical Department ELECTRONICS-II 1

Name: Registration No: Semester: Batch: FEDERAL URDU UNIVERSITY OF ARTS, SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY ELECTRONICS-II 2

PRACTICAL LIST S.NO. PRACTICAL NAME 01 Verification of the calculated value of a BJT amplifier 02 Implementation of OR gate using BJT s 03 Determination of Input-offset voltage of LM-741 04 Implementation of the Buffer/Non-Inverting Amplifier using LM-741 05 Implementation of the Inverting Amplifier using LM-741 06 Implementation of the Summing Amplifier using LM-741 07 Frequency Response of Active Low Pass Filter 08 Frequency Response of Active High Pass Filter 09 Plot the Drain Characteristics of a JFET 10 Plot the Transfer Characteristics of a JFET 11 JFET Self Biased Network 12 JFET Voltage Divider Bias Network 13 Implementation of Common Source Amplifier using JFET 14 Implementation of Common Drain Amplifier using JFET 15 A-stable Operation of a 555 Timer 16 Mono-stable Operation of a 555 Timer ELECTRONICS-II 3

Experiment # 01 VERIFICATION OF THE CALCULATED VALUES OF A BJT AMPLIFIER OBJECTIVE: APPARATUS: Understand and analyze the operation of common-emitter amplifiers. BJT (2N3904) AC/DC POWER SUPPLY BREAD BOARD CAPACITORS 10UF RESISTORS 57K, 3K MULTIMETER CONNECTING WIRES INITIAL CONDITIONS: CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: IC = 2mA & VCE= VCC/2 Vcc 12V V2-1m/1mV 1kHz C1 10uF RB 57k RC 3k C2 10uF Q1 2N3904 RL 1k Common Emitter Amplifier PROCEDURE: 1. Connect the circuit as shown in circuit diagram 2. Use the multimeter to find out the type of transistor and the value of beta. 3. Set the initial condition for the circuit and calculate the value of Rc and RB. ELECTRONICS-II 4

4. Use the following relationship RC= (VCC-VCE)/IC RB= (VCC-VBE)/IB IC= βib 5. Measure the Output Voltage Vo (p-p) for different values of input voltage Vin (p-p). 6. All the readings are tabulated and voltage gain in db is calculated by using the expression CALCULATIONS: A v =20 log 10 (V 0 /V i ) Table No. 01: S. No. Red Wire () Black Wire (-) Voltage 1 A B 2 B A 3 A C 4 C A 5 B C 6 C B From voltage table: Side A is Side B is Side C is Transistor is. Table No. 02: Calculated Values Actual Values RB RC RB RC ELECTRONICS-II 5

Table No. 03: Input Signal Output Signal Gain A V= (V 0 /V i ) Gain in db A v =20log 10 (V 0 /V i ) Input Signal 01 Output Signal 01 ELECTRONICS-II 6

Input Signal 02 Output Signal 02 Input Signal 03 ELECTRONICS-II 7

Output Signal 03 OBSERVATIONS: Teacher s Signature:. Date:. Teacher s Name: Engr Saqib Riaz. ELECTRONICS-II 8

Experiment # 02 IMPLEMENTATION OF OR GATE USING BJT S OBJECTIVE: Understand the working of digital OR gate. See how the truth table is constructed & also understand the outputs of the OR gate. APPARATUS: CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: BJT (2N3904) DC POWER SUPPLY BREAD BOARD LED s (Red & Green) RESISTORS 10K, 1K, 10K & 3.3K MULTIMETER CONNECTING WIRES VCC 5V RC1 1k RC2 1k RBB1 100k Q1 2N3904 RBB2 100k Q2 2N3904 VBB1 0/5V RE1 100 VBB2 0/5V RE2 100 RL 10k OR Gate using BJT s PROCEDURE: 1. Construct the circuit as shown above. 2. Clearly mark the inputs and outputs of the circuit 3. Apply the different possible combinations of the inputs to the circuit. 4. Construct the truth table for the inputs as well as for the outputs. 5. Verify the operation of the lab circuit. ELECTRONICS-II 9

Truth Table for an OR gate: Input A Input B Output Y Table of results from the circuit: Vin1 Vin2 Vout Question: Draw the circuit diagram of AND gate using BJT s? Also make truth table for it. ELECTRONICS-II 10

OBSERVATIONS:. Teacher s Signature:. Date:. Teacher s Name: Engr Saqib Riaz. ELECTRONICS-II 11

EXPERIMENT # 03 DETERMINATION OF INPUT-OFFSET VOLTAGE OF OPAMP OBJECTIVE: LM 741 To sketch and briefly explain an operational amplifier circuit symbol and identify all terminals. To understand the pin configurations, specifications & functioning of LM741 opamp used in the practical applications. To reduce the offset voltage zero at the output. APPARATUS: OPAMP LM741 RESISTORS 100K DC POWER SUPPLY (15,-15) MULTIMETER CONNECTING WIRES PIN CONFIGURATION OF LM741 OPAMP: SPECIFICATIONS: 1. Supply voltage: µa 741A, µa 741, µa 741E ---------------- ±22V µa 741C ---------------- ±18 V 2. Internal power dissipation DIP package ----------------- 310 mw. 3. Differential input voltage ---------------- ±30 V. ELECTRONICS-II 12

4. Operating temperature range Military (µa 741A, µa 741) --------------- -55 0 to 125 0 C. Commercial (µa 741E, µa 741C) --------- 0 C to 70 0 C. 5. Input offset voltage ------------ 1.0 mv. 6. Input Bias current ------------ 80 na. 7. PSSR --------------30µV/V. 8. Input resistance -------------2MΩ. 9. CMMR --------------90dB. 10. Output resistance ---------------75Ω. 11. Bandwidth --------------1.0 MHz. 12. Slew rate ---------------0.5 V/µ sec. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 1: R1 100k V1 15V R3 100k U1 UA741 R2 100k Vout V2 15V PROCEDURE: 1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure (1). 2. Make both the inputs inverting as well as non-inverting to ground. 3. Make sure that you have powered the chip with the dual power supply. 4. Measure the DC output voltage at pin 6 using multimeter and record the result in table 1. 5. Calculate the input offset voltage using the formula and record the value in table 1. Vin = Vout/Av 6. Replace the 100 K resistance with 220 K and repeat the above steps. ELECTRONICS-II 13

Table 1: Resistance Vout Vin 100 K 220 K Elimination of the OFFSET voltage: 1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure (2). 2. To eliminate this offset voltage connects the stationary ends of 5K potentiometer between pin 1 & 5. 3. Use the pot, to zero the output of the amplifier this is how the offset voltage is eliminated. 4. In your experiment due to pot sensitivity, you may not get a full zero volt output. A 10 mv at the output will be sufficient. 5. Record the reading of voltage drop across the variable resistance that makes output zero in the following table 2. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 2: V1 15V R3 100k R1 100k U2 UA748 R2 100k V2 15V V Vout R4 10k 40% Table 2: Vin Vr Vout ELECTRONICS-II 14

OBSERVATIONS:. Teacher s Signature:. Date:. Teacher s Name: Engr Saqib Riaz. ELECTRONICS-II 15

EXPERIMENT # 04 IMPLEMENTATION OF NON-INVERTING/BUFFER AMPLIFIER BY USING LM741 OBJECTIVE: Understand the op-amp as a voltage follower or buffer. Analyze the non-inverting configuration & understand the closed loop gain. APPARATUS: OP-AMP IC LM741 RESISTOR 22K & 100K AC/DC POWER SUPPLIES OSCILLOSCOPE CONNECTING WIRES CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: V3-2/2V V1 15V U1 UA741 1kHz RL 10k V2 15V PROCEDURE: 1. Construct the buffer amplifier circuit as shown in the figure. 2. Connect AC input signal at the non-inverting end of the amplifier i.e ve end. 3. Use the oscilloscope to observe the input as well as the output signal. 4. Compute the voltage gain by the following formula. AV = VOUT/VIN = 1 RF/RIN 5. Sketch the observed input & output waveforms. ELECTRONICS-II 16

Calculations: Table Input Signal (VP-P) Output Signal (VP-P) Calculated Voltage Gain AV Measured Voltage Gain AV Difference Calculation of the waveform: input Signal Output Signal ELECTRONICS-II 17

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: V3-2/2V V1 15V U1 UA741 1kHz Rf Rin 22k 100k RL 10k V2 15V PROCEDURE: 1. Construct the non-inverting amplifier circuit as shown in the above figure. 2. Connect AC input signal at the non-inverting end of the amplifier i.e ve end. 3. Use the oscilloscope to observe the input as well as the output signal. 4. Compute the voltage gain by the following formula. AV = VOUT/VIN = 1 RF/RIN 5. Sketch the observed input & output waveforms. Calculations: Table Input Signal (VP-P) Output Signal (VP-P) Calculated Voltage Gain Measured Voltage Gain Difference AV AV ELECTRONICS-II 18

Input Signal Output Signal OBSERVATIONS: Teacher s Signature:. Date:. Teacher s Name: Engr Saqib Riaz. ELECTRONICS-II 19

EXPERIMENT # 05 IMPLEMENTATION OF INVERTING AMPLIFIER BY USING LM741 OBJECTIVE: Analyze the inverting configuration & understand the voltage gain. APPARATUS: OP-AMP IC LM741 RESISTOR 22K & 100K AC/DC POWER SUPPLIES OSCILLOSCOPE CONNECTING WIRES CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: V3-2/2V 1kHz Rin 22k V1 15V U1 UA741 V2 15V Rf 100k RL 10k PROCEDURE: 1. Construct the inverting amplifier circuit as shown in the figure. 2. Connect AC input signal at the inverting end of the amplifier i.e -ve end. 3. Use the oscilloscope to observe the input as well as the output signal. 4. Compute the voltage gain by the following formula. AV = VOUT/VIN = - RF/RIN 5. Sketch the observed input & output waveform ELECTRONICS-II 20

Calculations: Table: Input Signal (VP-P)/Freq. Output Signal (VP-P)/Freq. Calculated Voltage Gain AV Measured Voltage Gain AV Difference Input Signal Output Signal ELECTRONICS-II 21

Input Signal Output Signal OBSERVATIONS: Teacher s Signature:. Date:. Teacher s Name: Engr Saqib Riaz. ELECTRONICS-II 22

EXPERIMENT # 06 IMPLEMENTATION OF SUMMING INVERTING AMPLIFIER BY USING LM741 OBJECTIVE: Analyze the operation of summing amplifiers & how to achieve any specified gain greater than unity APPARATUS: OP-AMP IC LM741 RESISTOR 10K, 22K & 100K AC/DC POWER SUPPLIES OSCILLOSCOPE CONNECTING WIRES CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: V4-1/1V 1kHz Rin1 22k V1 15V V3-1/1V 1kHz Rin 22k U1 UA741 Rf 50k RL 10k V2 15V Summing Inverting Amplifier PROCEDURE: 1. Construct the summing inverting amplifier circuit as shown in the figure. 2. Connect at least two AC input signal at the inverting end of the amplifier i.e -ve end. 3. Use the oscilloscope to observe the input as well as the output signal. 4. Compute the voltage gain by the following formula. AV = VOUT/VIN = - {Rf/Rin1Rf/Rin2} 5. Sketch the observed input & output waveforms. ELECTRONICS-II 23

Calculations: Table: Input Signal (VP-P)/Freq. Output Signal (VP-P)/Freq. Calculated Voltage Gain AV Measured Voltage Gain AV Difference Vin1 Vin2 Calculation of the waveform: Input Signal 1 ELECTRONICS-II 24

Input Signal 2 Output Signal OBSERVATIONS: Teacher s Signature:. Date:. Teacher s Name: Engr Saqib Riaz. ELECTRONICS-II 25

EXPERIMENT # 07 FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF ACTIVE LOW PASS FILTER OBJECTIVE: Describe the gain-versus-frequency responses of the basic filters & explain the low-pass response. APPARATUS: OP-AMP IC LM741 RESISTOR 10K, 22K & 100K AC/DC POWER SUPPLIES OSCILLOSCOPE CONNECTING WIRES CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: V1 15V V4-1/1V R1 U1 UA741 1kHz 10k C1.1uF Rin 22k V2 15V Rf 100k RL 10k Active Low Pass Filter PROCEDURE: 1. Construct the active low pass filter circuit as shown in the figure. 2. Connect AC input signal at the non-inverting end of the amplifier i.e ve end. 3. Use the oscilloscope to observe the input as well as the output signal. 4. Increase the input signal frequency in steps from 1KHz to 1MHz & Observe the corresponding output voltage of the filter and tabulate the results. 5. Compute the voltage gain by the following formula. AV = VOUT/VIN = (AF)/ 1(f/fc) 2 ELECTRONICS-II 26

Where, AF= the pass band gain of the filter (1Rf/Rin) f = the frequency of the input signal fc = the cut-off frequency (fc=1/2πrc) 6. Plot the frequency response curve of the low pass filter with the experimental results obtained & compare it with the expected waveform. Table: Input Frequency(F in ) in Hz V in Input volatage in volts V out Output Voltage in volts GAIN V out / V in 20 Log (V out / V in ) Magnitude in db ELECTRONICS-II 27

Calculation of the waveform: Output Signal Frequency vs Gain in db OBSERVATIONS: Teacher s Signature:. Date:. Teacher s Name: Engr Saqib Riaz. ELECTRONICS-II 28

EXPERIMENT # 08 FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF ACTIVE HIGH PASS FILTER OBJECTIVE: Explain the high-pass response & determine the critical frequency of a high-pass filter. APPARATUS: OP-AMP IC LM741 RESISTOR 10K, 22K & 100K AC/DC POWER SUPPLIES OSCILLOSCOPE CONNECTING WIRES CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: V1 15V V4-1/1V C1.1uF U1 UA741 10 Hz R1 10k Rin 22k V2 15V Rf 100k RL 10k Active High Pass Filter PROCEDURE: 1. Construct the active high pass filter circuit as shown in the figure. 2. Connect AC input signal at the non-inverting end of the amplifier i.e ve end. 3. Use the oscilloscope to observe the input as well as the output signal. 4. Increase the input signal frequency in steps from 1KHz to 1MHz & Observe the corresponding output voltage of the filter and tabulate the results. 5. Compute the voltage gain by the following formula. AV = VOUT/VIN = AF(f/fc)/ 1(f/fc) 2 ELECTRONICS-II 29

Calculation of the waveform: Output Signal Frequency vs Gain in db OBSERVATIONS: Teacher s Signature:. Date:. Teacher s Name: Engr Saqib Riaz. ELECTRONICS-II 31

EXPERIMENT # 09 PLOT THE DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF JFET OBJECTIVE: Explain ohmic area, constant current area and breakdown. Also explain pinch-off voltage. APPARATUS: JFET KS-192 RESISTOR 1K & 1M DC POWER SUPPLIES MULTIMETER CONNECTING WIRES CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: Rd 1k VGS Rg 1M 0V,-2V Q1 2N5457 10V VDD Rs 470 ohm PROCEDURE: 1. Construct the circuit diagram as shown above. 2. Set VGS=0V & measured ID=VRD/RD. 3. As VGS=0V, therefore the resulting drain current is IDSS with VGS=0V. 4. Slowly increase VDD to 3V & measure VDS and ID. 5. Increase VDD to 6V & measure VDS and ID. 6. Take couple of more measurements by increasing the value of VDD. 7. Plot the resulting curve between VDS & ID. 8. Repeat the same procedure with VGS = -2V. ELECTRONICS-II 32

Table for VGS = 0V: VDD(V) Calculated Measured VDS(V) ID(mA) ID(mA) 03 06 09 12 15 Table for VGS = -2V: VDD(V) Calculated Measured VDS(V) ID(mA) ID(mA) 03 06 09 12 15 ELECTRONICS-II 33

Calculations: VDS vs ID OBSERVATIONS: Teacher s Signature:. Date:. Teacher s Name: Engr Saqib Riaz. ELECTRONICS-II 34

EXPERIMENT # 10 PLOT THE TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS OF JFET OBJECTIVE: Analyze a JFET transfer characteristic curve & Use the equation for the transfer characteristic to calculate ID also calculate transconductance. APPARATUS: JFET KS-192 RESISTOR 1K & 1M DC POWER SUPPLIES MULTIMETER CONNECTING WIRES CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: Rd 1k VGS Rg 1M 0V,-2V Q1 2N5457 10V VDD Rs 470 ohm PROCEDURE: 1. Construct the circuit diagram as shown above. 2. Set VGS=0V & VDD = 10V at this point measure the drain current ID. 3. Slowly increase VGS to -1V & VDD = 10V measure ID. 4. Take couple of more measurements by increasing the value of VGS. 5. Measures drain current & transconductance by using following equation. ID = IDSS (1 VGS/VGS (off)) 2. (1) gm = ID/ VGS. (2) ELECTRONICS-II 35

Table for VDD = 10V: VGS(V) Measured ID(mA) 0-1 -2-3 -4-5 Calculations: VGS vs ID OBSERVATIONS: Teacher s Signature:. Date:. Teacher s Name: Engr Saqib Riaz. ELECTRONICS-II 36

OBJECTIVE: EXPERIMENT # 11 JFET SELF BIASED NETWORK Analyze JFET bias circuits & self-biased JFET circuit. Set the self-biased Q-point APPARATUS: JFET KS-192 RESISTOR 1K, 220Ω & 10M DC POWER SUPPLIES MULTIMETER CONNECTING WIRES CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: RD 1k Q1 2N5457 VDD 15V RG 10M RS 220 PROCEDURE: 1. Construct the circuit diagram as shown above. 2. Set VGS=0V & VDD = 15V at this point measure the drain current ID. 3. Slowly decrease the value of VDD = 10V measure ID. 4. Take couple of more measurements by decreasing the value of VDD. 5. Calculate VS by the following formula: VS = IDRS 6. Calculate drain-source voltage by the following formula. VDS = VDD ID (RDRS) ELECTRONICS-II 37

Table at VGS = 0V: Drain Voltage VDD Drain Current Measured ID Calculated Source Voltage VS Calculated Drain-Source Voltage VDS Measured Drain- Source Voltage VDS 15 10 5 3 Calculations: VGS vs ID OBSERVATIONS: Teacher s Signature:. Date:. Teacher s Name: Engr Saqib Riaz. ELECTRONICS-II 38

EXPERIMENT # 12 JFET VOLTAGE DIVIDER BIASED NETWORK OBJECTIVE: Analyze JFET bias circuits & the effect of parallel resistance on JFET circuit. APPARATUS: JFET KS-192 RESISTOR 1M, 2.2K, 3.3K & 10M DC POWER SUPPLIES MULTIMETER CONNECTING WIRES CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: R1 6.8M RD 3.3k Q1 2N5457 VDD 15V R2 1M RS 2.2k PROCEDURE: 1. Construct the circuit diagram as shown above. 2. Set VGS=0V & VDD = 15V at this point measure the drain current ID. 3. Calculate VS by the following formula: VS = IDRS 4. Calculate gate voltage VG & VGS by the following formula: VG = (R2/ (R1 R2)) * VDD VGS = VG - VS ELECTRONICS-II 39

Table at VGS = 0V: Gate- Source Voltage Drain Voltage VDD Drain Current Measured Calculated Source Voltage Calculated Gate Voltage VDS Calculated Gate-Source Voltage VGS ID VS VGS 0 15 OBSERVATIONS: Teacher s Signature:. Date:. Teacher s Name: Engr Saqib Riaz. ELECTRONICS-II 40

OBJECTIVE: EXPERIMENT # 13 COMMON SOURCE AMPLIFIER OF JFET Explain and analyze the operation of common-source FET amplifiers. APPARATUS: JFET KS-192 RESISTOR 1M, 2.2K, 1K & 10K CAPACITOR 0.01uF, 1uF & 10uF AC/DC POWER SUPPLIES MULTIMETER CONNECTING WIRES CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: RD 2.2k C2 V1-1/1V C1 0.01uF Q1 2N5457 1uF V2 10V 1kHz R1 1k RL 10k RS 1k C3 10uF PROCEDURE: 1. Construct the circuit diagram as shown above. 2. Set VIN=1Vp-p & VDD = 12V. 3. Measure the Output Voltage Vo (p-p) for different values of input voltage Vin (p-p). 4. Voltage gain of the common source amplifier is given by: AV = gm RD 5. The output signal voltage VDS at the drain is: Vout = VDS = AVVGS ELECTRONICS-II 41

Table : Input Signal Output Signal Gain A V= (V 0 /V i ) Gain in db A v =20log 10 (V 0 /V i ) Calculation of the waveform: Input Signal 01 Output Signal 01 Output Signal 01 ELECTRONICS-II 42

Input Signal 02 Output Signal 02 OBSERVATIONS: Teacher s Signature:. Date:. Teacher s Name: Engr Saqib Riaz. ELECTRONICS-II 43

OBJECTIVE: EXPERIMENT # 14 COMMON DRAIN AMPLIFIER OF JFET Explain and analyze the operation of common-drain FET amplifiers. APPARATUS: JFET KS-192 RESISTOR 1M, 2.2K, 1K & 10K CAPACITOR 0.01uF & 10uF AC/DC POWER SUPPLIES MULTIMETER CONNECTING WIRES CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: RD 2.2k V1-1/1V 100kHz C1 0.01uF R1 1k RS Q1 2N5457 1k C3 1uF RL 10k V2 10V PROCEDURE: 1. Construct the circuit diagram as shown above. 2. Set VIN=1Vp-p & VDD = 12V. 3. Measure the Output Voltage Vo (p-p) for different values of input voltage Vin (p-p). 4. Voltage gain of the common source amplifier is given by: AV = gm RS / 1 gm RS ELECTRONICS-II 44

Table : Input Signal Output Signal Gain A V= (V 0 /V i ) Gain in db A v =20log 10 (V 0 /V i ) Calculation of the waveform: Input Signal 01 Output Signal 01 Input Signal 01 ELECTRONICS-II 45

IntPut Signal 02 Output Signal 02 Output Signal 02 OBSERVATIONS: Teacher s Signature:. Date:. Teacher s Name: Engr Saqib Riaz. ELECTRONICS-II 46

OBJECTIVE: EXPERIMENT # 15 A-STABLE OPERATION OF 555 TIMER To investigate the operation of 555 timer in the A-Stable mode APPARATUS: LM 555 RESISTORS CAPACITORS DC POWER SUPLLY DIGITAL MULTIMETER OSCILLOSCOPE OPERATION: A-stable circuit produces a 'square wave ; this is a digital waveform with sharp transitions between low (0V) and high (Vs). Note that the durations of the low and high states may be different. The circuit is called an A-stable because it is not stable in any state the output is continually changing between 'low' and 'high'. The time period (T) of the square wave is the time for one complete cycle, but it is usually better to consider frequency (f) which is the number of cycles per second. ELECTRONICS-II 47

T = time period in seconds (s) f = frequency in hertz (Hz) R1 = resistance in ohms (Ω) T = 0.7 (R1 2R2) C1 and f = 1.4 (R1 2R2) C1 R2 = resistance in ohms ( ) C1 = capacitance in farads (F) The time period can be split into two parts: T = Tm Ts Mark time: (output high): Tm = 0.7 (R1 R2) C1 Space time: (output low): Ts = 0.7 R2 C1 Many circuits require Tm and Ts to be almost equal; this is achieved if R2 is much larger than R1. For a standard a-stable circuit Tm cannot be less than Ts, but this is not too restricting because the output can both sink and source current. For example an LED can be made to flash briefly with long gaps by connecting it (with its resistor) between Vs and the output. This way the LED is on during Ts, so brief flashes are achieved with R1 larger than R2, making Ts short and Tm long. Tm must be less than Ts a diode can be added to the circuit as explained under duty cycle below. Choosing R1, R2 and C1: R1 and R2 should be in the range 1k to 1M. It is best to choose C1 first because capacitors are available in just a few values. Choose C1 to suit the frequency range you require (use the table as a guide). Choose R2 to give the frequency (f) you require. Assume that R1 is much smaller than R2 (so that Tm and Ts are almost equal), then you can use: ELECTRONICS-II 48

R2 = 0.7 f C1 Choose R1 to be about a tenth of R2 (1k min.) unless you want the mark time Tm to be significantly longer than the space time Ts. If you wish to use a variable resistor it is best to make it R2. If R1 is variable it must have a fixed resistor of at least 1k in series (this is not required for R2 if it is variable). A-stable operation With the output high (Vs) the capacitor C1 is charged by current flowing through R1 and R2. The threshold and trigger inputs monitor the capacitor voltage and when it reaches 2/3Vs (threshold voltage) the output becomes low and the discharge pin is connected to 0V. The capacitor now discharges with current flowing through R2 into the discharge pin. When the voltage falls to 1/3Vs (trigger voltage) the output becomes high again and the discharge pin is disconnected, allowing the capacitor to start charging again. This cycle repeats continuously unless the reset input is connected to 0V which forces the output low while reset is 0V. A-stable can be used to provide the clock signal for circuits such as counters. A low frequency A-stable (< 10Hz) can be used to flash an LED on and off, higher frequency flashes are too fast to be seen clearly. Driving a loudspeaker or piezo transducer with a low frequency of less than 20Hz will produce a series of 'clicks' (one for each low/high transition) and this can be used to make a simple metronome. An audio frequency A-stable (20Hz to 20 khz) can be used to produce a sound from a loudspeaker or piezo transducer. The sound is suitable for buzzes and beeps. The natural (resonant) frequency of most piezo transducers is about 3 khz and this will make them produce a particularly loud sound. OBSERVATIONS: Teacher s Signature:. Date:. Teacher s Name: Engr Saqib Riaz. ELECTRONICS-II 49

EXPERIMENT # 16 MONOSTABLE OPERATION OF 555 TIMER OBJECTIVE: To investigate the operation of 555 timer in the Mono-Stable mode APPARATUS: LM 555 RESISTORS CAPACITORS DC POWER SUPLLY DIGITAL MULTIMETER OSCILLOSCOPE OPERATION: A Mono-stable circuit produces a single output pulse when triggered. It is called a Monostable because it is stable in just one state: 'output low'. The 'output high' state is temporary. The duration of the pulse is called the time period (T) and this is determined by resistor R1 and capacitor C1: time period, T = 1.1 R1 C1 T = time period in seconds (s) R1 = resistance in ohms (Ω) C1 = capacitance in farads (F) The maximum reliable time period is about 10 minutes. Why 1.1? The capacitor charges to 2/3 = 67% so it is a bit longer than the time constant (R1 C1) which is the time taken to charge to 63%. Choose C1 first (there are relatively few values available). Choose R1 to give the time period you need. R1 should be in the range 1k to 1M, so use a fixed resistor of at least 1k in series if R1 is variable. Beware that electrolytic capacitor values are not accurate; errors of at least 20% are common. Beware that electrolytic capacitors leak charge which substantially increases the time period if you are using a high value resistor - use the formula as only a very rough guide! For example the Timer Project should have a maximum time period of 266s (about 4½ minutes), but many electrolytic capacitors extend this to about 10 minutes! The timing period is triggered (started) when the trigger input (555 pin 2) is less than 1/3 Vs, this makes the output high (Vs) and the capacitor C1 starts to charge through resistor R1. Once the time period has started further trigger pulses are ignored. The threshold input (555 pin 6) monitors the voltage across C1 and when this reaches 2/3 Vs the time period is over and the output becomes low. At the same time discharge (555 pin 7) is connected to 0V, discharging the capacitor ready for the next trigger. The reset input (555 pin 4) overrides all other inputs and the timing may be cancelled at any time by connecting reset to 0V, this instantly makes the output low and discharges the capacitor. If the reset function is not required the reset pin should be connected to Vs. ELECTRONICS-II 50

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Power-on reset or trigger: It may be useful to ensure that a mono-stable circuit is reset or triggered automatically when the power supply is connected or switched on. This is achieved by using a capacitor instead of (or in addition to) a push switch as shown in the diagram. The capacitor takes a short time to charge, briefly holding the input close to 0V when the circuit is switched on. A switch may be connected in parallel with the capacitor if manual operation is also required. This arrangement is used for the trigger in the Timer Project. Edge-triggering: If the trigger input is still less than 1/3 Vs at the end of the time period the output will remain high until the trigger is greater than 1/3 Vs. This situation can occur if the input signal is from an on-off switch or sensor. The Mono-stable can be made edge triggered, responding only to changes of an input signal, by connecting the trigger signal through a capacitor to the trigger input. The capacitor passes sudden changes (AC) but blocks a constant (DC) signal. For further information please see the page on capacitance. The circuit is 'negative edge triggered' because it responds to a sudden fall in the input signal. The resistor between the trigger (555 pin 2) and Vs ensures that the trigger is normally high (Vs). OBSERVATIONS: Teacher s Signature:. Date:. Teacher s Name: Engr Saqib Riaz. ELECTRONICS-II 52