A SPATIAL ILLUSION For centuries Oriental artists did not make wide use of linear perspective. Another spatial convention was satisfactory for their pictorial purposes. In Oriental art planes recede on the diagonal, but the lines, instead of converging to a vanishing point, remain parallel. Illustration A shows a box drawn in linear perspective; B shows the box drawn in the Oriental method. In the West we refer to image B as an isometric projection. Isometric Projection in the East Traditional Japanese prints such as C illustrate this device. The effect is different from Western perspective but certainly not disturbing. The rather.at decorative effect seems perfectly in keeping with the treatment of the figures, with a strong linear pattern and at color areas. The artist does not stress three-dimensional solidity or roundness in the figures, so we do not miss this quality in the architecture or the space. Isometric Projection in the West Isometric projection, although used extensively in engi neering and mechanical drawings, is rarely seen in Western painting. The self-portrait by David Hockney (D) uses this device, and the change from the linear perspective is fresh and intriguing. Hockney has explored virtually every method of spatial organization mentioned in this chapter in prints, drawings, paintings, and photography. The work by Josef Albers (E) uses this idea in a purely abstract way. The artist creates a geometric shape drawn in an isometric-type view. The interesting aspect of the design, however, is the shifting, puzzling spatial pattern that emerges. The direction of any plane seems to advance, then recede, then to be at in a fascinating ambiguity. In linear perspective, parallel lines gradually draw closer together as they recede into the distance. In isometric projection, parallel lines remain parallel.
THE CONCEPT OF ENCLOSURE One other aspect of pictorial space is of concern to the artist or designer. This is the concept of enclosure, the use of what is referred to as open form or closed form. The artist has the choice of giving us a complete scene or merely a partial glimpse of a portion of a scene that continues beyond the format. Exploring Closed Form In A Chardin puts the focal point in the center of the composition; thus our eyes are not led out of the painting. The still life of musical instruments and sheet music is effectively framed by the curved border of the picture, which echoes the many ovals in the composition. The book on the left and the candle on the right bracket the composition and keep our attention within the picture. This is called closed form. Exploring Open Form By contrast, example B is clearly open form. The landscape painting by Robert James Foose does not include the entire tree but only part of it. Most of the foliage is outside the picture. The focus is on the lower part of the tree and the reflection in the water. This reflection provides a vertical balance, and the picture feels complete, even if the forms are cropped or incomplete. The ultimate extension of the open-form concept is illustrated in C. This painting breaks out of a rectangular format and effectively destroys any framed, or contained, feeling. In fact, shapes within the painting extend outward, and the white wall creates shapes that cut into the painting but also expand to include a field well beyond the painting s boundary.
It may be most surprising to encounter open form when the subject is the human figure. Figures are often cropped in the action photographs of athletes, and this suggests the dynamics of sports. A cropped.figure can also simply suggest a unique point of view. The print by Alex Katz shown in D is cropped to form an unexpected composition. The open form implies a figure beyond the picture, while emphasis is given to an unusual focus on the feet. As you can see, closed form generally gives a rather formal, structured appearance, whereas open form creates a casual, momentary feeling, with elements moving on and off the format in an informal manner.
EQUIVOCAL SPACE Most art in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries has not been concerned with a purely naturalistic reproduction of the world around us. Photography has provided a way we can all record appearance in a picture. This is true in the area of spatial and depth representation also. Many artists have chosen to ignore the device of overlapping. Instead, they have used what is called transparency. When two forms overlap and both are seen completely, the figures are assumed to be transparent (A). Interest in Ambiguity Transparency does not give us a clear spatial pattern. In A we are not sure which plane is on top and which behind. The spatial pattern can change as we look at it. This purposeful ambiguity is called equivocal space, and many artists find it a more interesting visual pattern than the immediately clear spatial organization provided by overlapping in a design. There is another rationale for the use of transparency. Just because one item is in front of and hides another object does not mean the item in back has ceased to exist. In B a bowl of fruit is depicted with the customary visual device of overlapping. In C the same bowl of fruit is shown with transparency, and we discover another piece of fruit in the bottom of the bowl. It was always there, simply hidden from our view. So, which design is more realistic? By what standards do you decide?
Exploring Equivocal Space The sweatshirt design in D was created to celebrate a fifth anniversary. The letters spelling Five are clear, but they overlap and become transparent with differing patterns and values. The design takes a simple theme and creates an interesting pattern from a few elements. Spatial ambiguity can also be suggested through the use of open form. A large X seems to expand beyond the boundaries of the rectangle in E. The same composition can be seen in a moment of figure/ground reversal to be four small triangular shapes against a yellow ground. A spatial ambiguity is created in this reversal.
COMPLEXITY AND SUBTLETY Two-dimensional art and design are by definition flat. Unlike the realms of sculpture and architecture, space in two-dimensional art forms can only be implied. This leaves the artist and designer with a range of spatial clues and techniques with a similar range of expressive potential. A flat graphic design may pack a punch for a poster or abstract painting. A complex space may lead a viewer into the subtle depths of a landscape painting. When we look at the painting by Bruegel (A), we are drawn into space that moves from intimate to vast and deep. In the foreground we observe the details of a scene of workers at leisure. Nearly every spatial device we can think of leads us back through an unfolding and interesting landscape: Foreground figures and trees are larger. The trimmed edges of the hay.eld follow the rules of linear perspective. The rolling ground plane offers many instances of overlapping. The atmosphere softens forms in the distance: value contrast diminishes and colors become cool and subtle. Bruegel s painting tells us much about life in the sixteenth century, but it also tells us much about the potential for painting to evoke space.