International co-operation in the peaceful use of outer space

Forum: General Assembly 4 Issue: Student Officer: Position: International co-operation in the peaceful use of outer space Siddhant Tandon Deputy Head Chair Introduction As the world continues to progress through space exploration many worries have been raised on peacekeeping efforts. Outer space is a completely new demographic to place new weapons and test them. In other words nations have the ability to deploy weapons in space with unlimited range and unfathomable power. Space machines are also mostly self sustaining through solar power meaning that these weapons have enough energy as well. This problem was raised to the General Assembly during the 1950 s. Soon an entire committee was formed to tackle these issues called COPUOS in 1959 just after the satellite Sputnik was launched into space. Peacekeeping in space at the time was a concern with the space race and the cold war going on with increasing tension between the two biggest superpowers in aerospace technology at the time, The United States of America and Russia. Various treaties have been put in place to keep the peace, the most remarkable being the Outer Space Treaty. This treaty states that no celestial body [including the moon] can be owned, or declared as territory of any nation and can only be used for peaceful purposes. This means that national appropriation is not in order for any celestial body and nations can use celestial bodies only for peaceful purposes. Violations of this could range from using planets as a military base or harvesting the moon for resources to make weapons. Apart from that there have been two other main treaties and resolutions than have been passed to make sure that the peace in outer space in maintained. There are many more issues than arise from the weaponization of space such as the proliferation of space debris and the lack of clarity in definition of certain keywords, leaving many loopholes in these kinds of treaties. Research Report Page 1 of 15

Still, majority of all satellites and equipment in space are for civilian use. There were 1,100 functional satellites in space as of 2017 and an estimated 320 of them are military satellites. Meaning that approximately 29% of all active satellites are for military purposes. The other 71% are purely civilian satellites. Space debris that these weapons can cause and using space debris as a weapon or armament is also an issue. Similarly many nations are slowly proliferating the amount of militarised satellites and other artificial machines in space, treading on a thin line between militarisation and weaponization Definition of Key Terms COPUOS Committee On the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. This committee was established in 1959 and has made international five major treaties to prevent the development of weapons to be deployed in outer space. PAROS Preventing an Arms Race in Outer Space. A UN resolution that bans the prohibits the weaponization of outer space. Low Earth Orbit (LEO) This is the area just under the main orbit of the earth where most man made satellites are located. the altitude of LEO is from 160 kilometers above the earth up to 2,000 kilometers above the earth. If any object it deployed lower than the LEO then it was fall back to earth and possibly burn up due to Orbital Decay Orbital Decay Orbital decay is a physical phenomenon where the altitude of an object (In LEO or below) continues to decrease because of the force of gravity that is acting upon the object. As any object comes closer to the earth's surface, the force of gravity becomes stronger and the friction in the atmosphere pulls the object down. Research Report Page 2 of 15

Satellite An artificial object put in orbit around the earth or other planets for to collect information or for communication. It is uncertain whether this can classify as an armament or not as they can be fitted with weapons or used for peaceful purposes, such as secret surveillance Space Debris Sometimes known as orbital debris, space debris are pieces of anything ranging from fragments of satellites to boxes that NASA sends to space with the hope of reaching extraterrestrial life. They can be as miniscule as flecks of metal and on the other extreme can be as large as an entire satellite itself that has stopped working. International Space Station(ISS) A large spacecraft that orbits earth. It also is a home for astronauts to live in and also has a unique laboratory to conduct experiments in space to further astronomical knowledge. The ISS is located at height of 400 kilometers and orbits the earth 16 times every day. It was first launched in 1998 and is a combined effort of the following nations. The United States, Russia, Canada, Japan, Brazil, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom(England, Northern Ireland, Wales and Scotland) International Space Station A type of guided missile using propulsion to move from one place to another. The travel path of ICBMs start from earth and then enter sub-orbital orbit, (Just above the atmosphere), finally dropping into the desired area. With a minimum range of 5,500 kilometers, these missiles can reach most places on the globe and can carry nuclear warheads along with biological and chemical weapons. Anti-Satellite(ASAT) - A type of weapon used in almost all militaries around the world and most do not come under space weapons, allowing nations to proliferate these weapons, putting both military and civilian satellites in danger. According to COPUOS there are two types of ASAT weapons; Space-deployed ASAT s Research Report Page 3 of 15

Space deployed ASAT s are the types of weaponry that are not allowed to be tested or profilerated according to the PAROS treaty. These weapons are deployed in outer space and have anti-satellite capabilities. Ground -based ASAT s These are grounded weapons that are below the Kármán Line which is an altitude of 100 kilometers or 62 miles above sea level. These weapons have the range and power to destroy both military and civilian satellites while on the ground, usually launching large rockets or small missiles. Air Launched Miniature Weapons(ALMVs) A ground based ASAT weapon which is a two stage missile that is launched from an F-15 fighter pilot or any similar vehicle at a high altitude, below the Kármán Line. This missile then ascends into the LEO locating the targeted satellite and destroys it. This type of explosion is known as a kinetic kill and ALMVs are technically more challenging to manufacture than most ASAT weapons. Key Issues Lack of information on definitions One of the largest problems that the U.N is facing today is the fact that in outer space, anything can be a weapon. A small amount of space debris is enough to destroy an important satellite so the UN has trouble defining what is meant as an armament or weaponization in outer space. Some nations are using the lack of detail to take steps closer to the weaponization of space Militarisation in space has started ever since the earliest communications satellites were sent into space. They help the military communicate and communicate and monitor others all around the world. The Global Positioning System aids navigation and tracking. Militarisation also includes using satellites capable to direct bombings and other attacks. Despite some of the activities classified in the militarization of space may not be peaceful, it is still permitted and many nations have already militarised outer space. Weaponization directly refers to launching a device with destructive abilities into the earth's orbit. This doesn t include the land based weapons that can attack objects and assets that are present in outer space as these weapons aren t in the earth's orbit. Several nations have also started investing in a technology known as a ballistic missile defense shield, which can potentially protect nations from any ICBM threat from anywhere in the world. In the Research Report Page 4 of 15

name of defense, nations can legally put these shields into space. U.N officials fear that nations will launch offensive mechanisms under the pretence of national security or defense. One example of this is a defensive system known as a Kinetic Energy Interceptors(KEI) which use missiles with guidance systems to smash into incoming missiles or ICBM s. These kinetic energy interceptors are meant to be placed in space for them to intercept the incoming attack without causing civilian damage or a radiation leak. One can easily see how this can be weaponized for offensive use, claiming that the purpose of these machines are to protect the nation Space debris The weaponization of space also means the growth of space debris due to testing of these weapons and other similar activities. As of now there is already a vast amount of space debris in the atmosphere. If this continues, soon weapons will be deployed in the LEO. This proliferation of weapons in the LEO will take up space from civilian machines that are launched and prove risky for any aerospace system to take off from earth. As of now there are 500,000 pieces of space debris are currently in orbit going at speeds up to 17,500 miles per hour or 28163.52 kilometers per hour. At this speed a tiny piece of dry paint can create a quarter inch crack in the window of the ISS These pieces of space debris can cause serious issues to spacecrafts and satellites on impact and can even destroy them completely, claiming lives. This threat also applies to the ISS. It can take up to thirty hours to plan and initiate maneuvers to move out of the way of space debris. Even if all nations stop launching objects into space, the proliferation of space debris will still take place as when two pieces of space debris collide, it only makes more space debris. Experts fear than this will cause an inevitable chain reaction. So if these space weapons are launched into space, the space debris that they create will grow exponentially over the years. This space debris also limits the amount of peaceful activities nations can carry out in space since it will be challenging to exit the LEO without a threat of a collision due to space debris. The power of space weapons The power of these space weapons would be unbelievable. Apart from being able to unleash ICBMs from above, space weapons also can access any place on the planet. The United States Of America owns a satellite known as the Lacrosse- a surveillance satellite - that can read the watch of anyone who steps outside of their house anywhere on the planet. This is due to the earth's orbit allowing satellites to go round the earth without using any energy. Various nations have already shown anti-satellite and space weaponry capabilities but have not deployed them into space. Research Report Page 5 of 15

Software weapons Despite the power of space weaponry, there is a major threat to both civilian and military satellites. Although a ground-based weapon, It can easily breach and rewrite the satellite code, jamming it and stopping it from carrying out its desired purpose. Within minutes, it can turn the satellite into space debris. The proliferation of these software weapons are not addressed in PAROS, The Outer Space Treaty or any of the other resolutions and treaties passed by COPUOS Private space exploration companies Many private firms and companies have emerged such as Spacex and Virgin Galactic which have enough funds to explore space without government support. This means that these companies are independent of these nations so they do not have to follow the Outer Space Treaty or the PAROS resolution. These firms also possess powerful technology and can outrun NASA and other space agencies such as ISA and Roscosmos in the race of galactic exploration. Spacex had in fact manufactured the first reusable rocket. A space shaft than can land back to earth in one piece, which was never done before by any space agency. Usually rockets are launched into space and while in space, detaches itself so than only the passenger capsule falls back into earth, somewhere in the ocean. This can be a large problem since these companies can easily claim the earth as their own land and have no obligation to abide by the guidelines set by the U.N. Furthermore the nation cannot take sizeable action since there is no law preventing civilians from claiming the moon and any violence or punishment carried out by the nation to one of these private firms will be recognised as unjust since they are not prohibited from turning the moon into a country of their own. Major Parties Involved and Their Views The United States Of America The United States Of America is one of the P5 nations in the UN. Despite this, U.S seems on the brink of breaching the PAROS resolution and the Outer Space Treaty. PAROS states that no nation can weaponize space. U.S already has plans to put a KEI systems in space, and is already developing more cost efficient and powerful ones. Despite not officially violating this resolution under the pretence of defense and militarisation and not weaponization, This is just one step further to the full weaponization of space. Many U.S satellites already have to ability to conduct large bombings and orchestrate the logistics to do so. The U.S also has the capability to decimate satellites through ground based weaponry and artillery. Research Report Page 6 of 15

The United States has also tested these ground based weapons on satellites before. In fact on February the 21st 2018, U.S had shot a faulty satellite with ASAT weapons. Despite being a satellite deployed and owned by the U.S, it is clear that it is being used for testing and flexing its weaponry muscle to the world. The U.S states that the satellite was shot in orbit due to the health dangers explaining that the satellite had a largely unused tank of hydrazine fuel. It has also stated that ASAT weaponry is being used only for defense. It has also starting to violate the essence of the Outer Space Treaty. NASA, Along with Roscosmos(Russian Space Agency) have started the planning and the construction of a space station to be placed in orbit around the moon. This means that this station orbiting around the moon s orbit which is stated by COPUOS that the moon cannot be owned by any country as its own territory. The construction of this space station has serious ramifications. Both NASA and Roscosmos have technically already claimed a part of the moon's orbit as its own territory. In other words no person can enter this space station legally when deployed into orbit unless given permission by either the Russian or the American government, similar to entering a country. Despite all this the United States was instrumental in the engineering of the Outer Space Treaty and PAROS and hopes to keep the peace in outer space. While some nations voice their discontent, stating that the U.S made this treaty because Russia was winning the space race. However, The United States has also stated that it is confident of a peaceful future in outer space. China China has been developing various ICBM defense systems ever since 2003. As previously discussed these defense systems include KEI s which have ASAT capabilities. Although these weapons are technically allowed to proliferate, there is some tension between nations on their development. Many nations argue that on these cases but are not registered with the UN since these KEI s are made for defense purposes. China has tested ground based ASAT weaponry since 2007 and have conducted two other tests since. Apart from than China has been developing and refining its software weaponry which have been tested and have the abilities to cause satellites to malfunction and render it incapable of doing its job. Since China has already established it s economy and is steadily growing with its exports, it is impractical for nations to lay down sanctions on China as its exports account for over 30% of the United States imports. China also has established trade routes and relations with the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and its government, who is not under any restriction that prevents it from proliferating ASAT Research Report Page 7 of 15

weapons as the Democratic People's Republic of Korea along with China and 9 other countries have not signed the Outer Space Treaty, legally leaving the Moon open to national appropriation for these nations, although many other nations, including the United States have threatened China with sanctions and attacks if they do so. Spacex Spacex is an independent, private organisation lead by South African businessman and investor Elon Musk, who was also the product architect of Tesla. Tesla was already a breakthrough product technologically and Musk is doing the same with Spacex. His company s technology is way beyond that of NASA and other governmental agencies and has successfully managed to build a space shuttle than can land back on the ground without detaching itself in the process which is a breakthrough that is light years ahead of everyone else. Musk has plans of building an orbital space hotel which is to orbit the earth and for later projects the moon. He is also planning to use these reusable space shuttles for tourism purposes to send passengers into space while being economically resourceful. Musk stated to CNBC that the sole purposes of spacex are discovery and tourism. Seeing as Spacex isn t developing any colonial technologies as such to colonise the moon or any celestial bodies so COPUOS is not very concerned at the moment about Spacex or any other private space exploration firm as they seek to make money out of tourism and exploration not territorial appropriation Roscosmos Roscosmos is a space agency based in Russia, funded, supported and controlled by the Russian government. It has been involved in many successful space excursions. One illustration of this point was the deployment of Sputnik in 1957 where Russia launched the very first satellite into the LEO and any other orbit. With this, Roscosmos has vintage, technology and experience on its vast repertoire of skills. However this can pose some risks for peacekeeping. As previously mentioned, Roscosmos is planning a moon orbit space station with U.S which will officially become their territory if built. Roscosmos is also planning to build a research station on the moon by 2045 but most nations are aware that it could also be a form of national appropriation if Roscosmos is the only party that is responsible for the creation of this lunar base. Russia had reassured nations and stated to other parties that they do not plan on infringing the outer space treaty or any other documents accepted by the house and himself. Many nations are still skeptical of Roscosmos plans and are also wary of any nations who are contributing with them to push the boundaries of this treaty. One example is The United States of America for the lunar orbit base they will be constructing with Roscosmos as previously mentioned. Despite this Roscosmos hasn t officially Research Report Page 8 of 15

started the creation for this lunar base or any other of their projects which are clear infringements of the Outer Space Treaty, so nations cannot pressure Russia or Roscosmos, or levy consequences on these groups as they have not infringed any of the guidelines set by COPUOS. Virgin Galactic Virgin Galactic is a part of the multibillion dollar group known as the Virgin Group which is leaded by Sir Richard Charles Nicholas Branson. Branson founded the Virgin Group and has been the CEO of this group ever since it went public in late February 1970. The Virgin Group controls of 400 mini companies, some of the most popular being Virgin Air, Virgin Megastore and Virgin Mobile. Virgin Galactic is one of the less popular ones but looks both promising and dangerous for the years to come. Virgin Galactic, like Spacex is a company dedicated to open space to public tourism a new demographic to make money and explore. Virgin Galactic however was made 2 years after Spacex so it was not an idea of Branson himself. Although Virgin Galactic has not made any breakthroughs, it has sufficient funds and technologies to replicate space shuttles and space crafts for commercial purposes which is the aim of the company. Similar to Spacex this company does not have to comply with the guidelines set by the U.N or any respective document or treaty there home country may have signed as they are a multinational independent entity which investors from all over the world. As mentioned before, Virgin Galactic s purpose is a touristic one. To provide space travel at cheap prices and allow people to fly around the earth above the LEO. Development of Issue/Timeline Date Event Outcome 1955-156 The United States of America and some of its ally nations express their concerns on peacekeeping in outer space to the United Nations General Assembly The General Assembly recognises the issue and creates a resolution to make sure that peacekeeping on outer space was taken seriously by other nations in the general assembly 13 th December 1958 The United Nations General releases a resolution known as Nations began to take the threat of a militarised space more Research Report Page 9 of 15

1348 which states that a committee known a COPUOS should be created where delegates can discuss on peacekeeping efforts in outer space 1964 China starts the proliferation of ASAT weapons and is looked down upon by the general assembly because of the sudden fear of a weapons race in outer space and various nations start profilerating their own ASAT weapons under the umbrella of :defense 27 th January 1967 The Outer Space Treaty was conceptualised and open for signing in the United States and the United Kingdom. Signatures were being collected to put the Outer Space Treaty into action 10 th October 1967 The Outer Space Treaty was put into action by the states that signed the treaty. The document was accepted by all states around the world and was regarded as a great achievement and one step closer to a peaceful space 1960-1974 Russia starts the development of co-orbital ASAT weapons which destroy satellites with more ease and less energy. Russia makes seriously and began proposed various treaties and resolutions to ensure that outer space stays safe and does not pose as a threat for nations and civilians. Very tense and hostile relations between many nations and especially China. Many nations grew there ASAT capabilities. This allowed many nations to take action for this peacekeeping effort as only two nations had space capabilities Space is now officially a no-man's-land meaning that all celestial bodies are no longer open for national appropriation and will be used for only one purpose which is exploration and growth of knowledge This caused further tension between states as Russia had quickly amassed a small space army and many nations were Research Report Page 10 of 15

no hesitation to quickly proliferate these weapons 1979-1984 The Moon treaty was open for signing in 1979 but was put into action in 1984. The moon treaty is a treaty that is similar to the outer space treaty except it clearly defines what activities nations can partake in on the moon 1997 The United States Of America developed and tested a new type of ASAT weapon known as the ALMV s. The proliferation of this weapon takes place in the United States and other nations with this being a new and efficient form of completely decimating satellites within minutes of the release. 2017 Donald Trump released a statement that he is planning a United States Space Force which will be present to make sure than the rules and regulations and guidelines of the are followed and enforced. This effort is coming from only the United States threatened and restarted their ASAT program for defense and retaliation. Nations were put to ease and the rollercoaster of international relations was becoming more and more complex on this issue. This furthered the tension between nations, especially the United States and Russia and the fear of another Cold War began brewing in COPUOS and nations were trying to maintain peace. Many nations are trying to join this project as if the United States in the only participant in this, they can effectively control space. Some nations however (China, India and Germany to name a few) are skeptical about this plan and want to make sure that it does not materialise for the sake of the preservation of the Outer Space Treaty. Research Report Page 11 of 15

Previous Attempts to solve the Issue The Outer Space Treaty in 1967 The Outer Space Treaty or more formally known as the Treaty On Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, is one of the most commendable if not the most commendable treaty conceptualised by COPUOS as one of the first actions after the creation of COPUOS itself. This treaty is responsible for orchestrating the whole framework of what can or cannot be done in the respect of territorial appropriation for a state. The treaties after that have been based of this when addressing national appropriation and its effect. it is regarding due to its vintage and its solutions to the problem by setting guidelines, rules and regulations that prohibit nations from claiming the moon or any celestial body as its own or as a part of their state. It also prohibits the weaponization of these celestial bodies in brief terms as a subsection of terrestrialization, not as the act of weaponization itself. The Liability Convention in 1972 The Liability Convention which is known in more definite terms as the Convention on the Liability for Damage Caused by Space Object. This is another treaty released half a decade after the Outer Space Treaty that expands on the consequences on the event of a failure to oblige with the Outer Space Treaty. If a spacecraft or any other artificial space body that belongs to a nation is destroyed deliberately or is suspected and proven to be a deliberate action, a compensation from the offending state will be in order. This treaty goes into a heavy amount of detail, expanding on the definitions on what is a deliberate action and what is not. deliberate actions will include a collision of an artificial space object launched by a nation that can be remotely controlled and no attempt was made to divert this object from collision or an object that has set coordinates that has been fixed onto a satellite or another artificial celestial body. The United States Space Force President Trump has declared the creation of a U.S made and maintained space force to regulate the space law that was put into place by various prestigious treaties as mentioned in this section and the sections above. It is assumed by the United Nations and COPUOS that this effort was indeed an honest one with good intentions but this request was denied as this included the weaponization for space in which only one nation was partaking in, leading to an early space war and perhaps the quick and sudden appropriation of celestial bodies by the United States of America. This is why it was declined. The COPUOS could look forward to a future in which UN peacekeepers are extended into the enforcement of Research Report Page 12 of 15

space but seeing as this is extremely costly and can take years to plan and develop, it is not the best solution for now. Possible Solutions The defining and redefining of key terms The biggest problem as mentioned in the sections above is the lack of definitions for key words. There are many defense systems such as KEI that can be used for offense. Under the shade of defense. Anything can become a weapon, even ejected waste. A possible solution would be to clearly define each term with care and caution as any loopholes in any definition can cause serious ramifications. One can define Defense as non-moving object, whose subsequent parts do not move beyond the system itself. This eliminates the proliferation of KEIs to avoid attack through defense. Even small chips sent into space could, if contain tracking devices, destroy satellites and spacecraft. The definition should clearly define what an armament is. One possible definition could be a device that is sent into space that can be controlled and propelled into spacecraft satellite, etc. This gives a definite way to understand if a party is trying to deliberately destroy something is space or is just for educational purposes. What would not qualify as a weapon would be an object like a satellite which already has set coordinates and cannot be manually controlled by such a degree that it can use its kinetic energy to render a satellite broken. The non-proliferation of ground based ASATs Another problem than one can solve is the situation of land based ASATs which can legally be profilerated and can cause the same impact as a KEI. The solution would be to release a treaty or a resolution regarding this issue. Some solutions would be to limit the proliferation of ground based ASATs through sanctions or through other consequences, while another frame of reference would be to incentivise the destruction and limitation of these weapons. One can also address the proliferation of these weapons by creating peace between nations who use the pretence of defense as a way to proliferate not only ground based ASATs but all weapons along with it which can impact the standard of living of the civilians. Regulations and guidelines that should be placed on private firms The Outer Space Treaty should also find a way to regulate private companies as well by encouraging nations to take either of the two stands as mentioned above. Incentivising the firms to refrain from violating the treaty or heavily tax and punish the firms when they do infringe the treaty by Research Report Page 13 of 15

making a nationwide law which all private and public companies have to abide by. This will, in turn, reduce the chance of private companies using this loophole to their advantage and infringing upon the treaties that are held sacrosanct within the COPUOS and by nations all around the world. A separate resolution must be made to address the involvement of private nations referring back to The Outer Space Treaty for reference. Furthermore, nations must be willing to carry out these actions as these companies are worth billions of dollars and carrying out these punishments could result in the removal of that business from that specific location, decreasing the government's tax revenue therefore the government will have to increase the tax for its civilians. This also must be enforced well by all nations and can be hard for developing nations to root out the corruption that has been surviving in its political and economical system for so long. Measures such as an checks and raids would be a good enough to check for corruption but at the same time not so radical that one infringes the rights of another. These rights depend from nation to nation. One needs to understand what these rights are and then decide the action that is to be taken. Bibliography Concluding General Debate on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, Fourth Committee Approves 3 Draft Resolutions, 1 Decision Meetings Coverage and Press Releases. United Nations, United Nations, www.un.org/press/en/2017/gaspd642.doc.htm. Convention on the International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Object. Institute of Air & Space Law, 30 Jan. 2012, www.mcgill.ca/iasl/centre/research/space-law/liability-convention. Dunbar, Brian. What Is Orbital Debris? NASA, NASA, 1 June 2015, www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/5-8/features/nasa-knows/what-is-orbital-debris-58. html. Dunbar, Brian. What Is the International Space Station? NASA, NASA, 2 June 2015, https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/5-8/features/nasa-knows/what-is-the-iss-58. html Garcia,Mark. Space Debris and Human Spacecraft. NASA, NASA, 14 Apr. 2015, www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/news/orbital_debris.html. Home. Critical Issues, Research Report Page 14 of 15

www.reachingcriticalwill.org/resources/fact-sheets/critical-issues/5448-outer-space. How Space Junk Works. HowStuffWorks Science, HowStuffWorks, 8 Mar. 2018, science.howstuffworks.com/space-junk.htm. Krishna, Swapna. Russia and the US Will Work Together to Build a Moon Base. Engadget, 21 Feb. 2018, www.engadget.com/2017/09/27/russia-us-cooperate-on-lunar-base/. Pike, John. Space. Anti-Satellite Weapons, www.globalsecurity.org/space/systems/asat-overview.htm. Pike, John. Space. Chinese Anti-Satellite Capabilities, www.globalsecurity.org/space/world/china/asat.htm. Robert.Wickramatunga. United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs. COPUOS, www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/copuos/index.html. Robert.Wickramatunga. United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs. COPUOS, www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/copuos/index.html. Sinead.Harvey. United NationsOffice for Outer Space Affairs. History: Treaties, www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/aboutus/history/treaties.html. www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/5-8/features/nasa-knows/what-is-the-iss-58.html. Stratfor. U.S.: Flexing Its Muscle With a Satellite Shot. Stratfor, Stratfor, 20 Feb. 2008, worldview.stratfor.com/article/us-flexing-its-muscle-satellite-shot. The Meaning and Cause of Orbital Decay. Actforlibraries.org, www.actforlibraries.org/the-meaning-and-cause-of-orbital-decay/. Williams, Matt. What Is Low Earth Orbit? Universe Today, 6 Jan. 2017, www.universetoday.com/85322/what-is-low-earth-orbit/. Research Report Page 15 of 15