1 Appeared in Eos Transactions AGU, 78 (24), 245, 1997 (with some editorial modifications) Terrestrial agents in the realm of space storms: Missions study oxygen ions Ioannis A. Daglis Institute of Ionospheric and Space Research, National Observatory of Athens 152 36 Penteli, Greece Observations from two recent space missions, the Active Magnetospheric Particle Tracer Explorers (AMPTE) and the Combined Release and Radiation Effects Satellite (CRRES), demonstrated that magnetospheric O + ions originating in the ionosphere are important terrestrial agents in geospace. In other words, the two missions showed that ionized oxygen escaping from the upper atmosphere, can play a critical role in electromagnetic processes in the near-earth space. The major geospace processes are the magnetospheric substorm and the magnetic storm. The AMPTE and CRRES missions demonstrated that the abundance of terrestrial plasma (O + in particular) in the inner magnetosphere increases quickly, as a fast response of the ionosphere to enhanced geospace activity during magnetic storms and substorms [Daglis and Axford, 1996]. Furthermore, both the AMPTE mission and, especially, the CRRES mission showed that O + becomes the dominant ion species during the main phase of great magnetic storms [Daglis, 1997]. Great magnetic storms are most remarkable globalscale processes, and they are of particular interest because they often have severe impacts on technological systems. Neutral molecules in the ionosphere, the outermost part of the terrestrial atmosphere (altitudes above 100 km), are dissociated and ionized by penetrating solar ultraviolet and X- ray emissions. If the ionized atoms (mainly protons and singly charged oxygen and helium) will not recombine and if they acquire enough energy to overcome gravitation, they escape to the magnetosphere. During times of high geomagnetic activity, that is during magnetic storms or magnetospheric substorms, a variety of acceleration processes enhances the escape of plasma from the ionosphere. As a result, the active magnetosphere has a large, and occasionally dominant, ionospheric component, while the quiet magnetosphere is dominated by solar wind material. Magnetospheric He + ions originate both in the ionosphere and as a result of charge exchange of solar wind He ++ ions. Magnetospheric H + ions originate both in the ionosphere and in the solar wind. Contrary, the vast majority of magnetospheric O + originate in the ionosphere, and therefore are considered tracer ions of magnetosphere-ionosphere coupling and the associated ionospheric outflow. Only a negligible percentage of magnetospheric O + ions originates through charge exchange from solar wind oxygen ions with high charge states (O 6+ ). Consequently a large abundance of O + ions in the magnetosphere is equivalent to strong
magnetosphere-ionosphere coupling. Furthermore, dominance of the heavy O + ions has important implications for geospace dynamics. If it is transient and localized (as it can be during substorms), it influences the growth of several plasma instabilities that play a significant role in the triggering of substorm onset. If it is large-scale and relatively long-lived (as it can be during storms), it influences wave growth, propagation, and damping, as well as growth and decay of currents (particularly the storm-time ring current). The relevant observations strongly suggest that the terrestrial ionosphere is an active element in dynamic magnetospheric processes. In the early years of space research the significance of the ionosphere as a source of magnetospheric ions was considered minor to negligible. It had been thought that solar wind ions penetrate inside the magnetosphere and dominate it. Ionospheric ions were thought to populate only the innermost dipolar field region of the magnetosphere known as the plasmasphere and having much lower plasma temperature than the solar wind and the rest of the magnetosphere. This consideration was mainly due to the low initial energy of ionospheric ions (of the order of several ev to several tens of ev), compared to the higher initial energy of solar wind ions (of the order of several kev). The solar-wind attitude of the scientific community was also due to a technical deficiency, namely the inability of the first generation of spaceborne measuring devices (particle spectrometers) to provide full identification of the detected ions. The lack of full information supported the initial consideration that all ions in space were protons of solar wind origin. The only serious consideration of the possible ionospheric origin of energetic ions in the magnetosphere was given by Axford [1970], who suggested that compositional measurements in the magnetosphere would clarify this issue. In the early 1970s the prevailing theory was challenged by the discovery of energetic heavy ions (M/q=16) by the first mass spectrometer in space. In the following years, a new type of ion composition instrumentation made it possible to obtain charge state information in addition to M/q analysis of energetic ions, and to confirm the existence of O + ions in the magnetosphere. By the end of the 1980s several space missions had established that the ionosphere is a significant source of magnetospheric plasma. But the extent of ionospheric contribution to the magnetospheric ion population continued to be under debate. Moreover, it was generally thought that the ionosphere has no active influence on substorms and storms. The major reason for this attitude has been the lack of comprehensive compositional measurements of the hot magnetospheric plasma. Until the mid-1980s a large gap (between ~20 and 200 kev) remained to be filled in the knowledge of the makeup of magnetospheric populations. The AMPTE mission closed this gap with the help of the Charge-Energy-Mass (CHEM) spectrometer, an advanced composition spectrometer which used a combination of measurement techniques. The AMPTE mission confirmed the prediction that the bulk of the storm-time ring current is carried by ions in the energy range ~10-200 kev. Moreover it was shown that during storms the inner ring current is substantially of ionospheric origin. Aiming at the assessment of the ionospheric role in the active geospace, a significant body of work on AMPTE and CRRES observations by Daglis and coworkers addressed the dynamic 2
relationship between the energetic part of the magnetospheric plasma and the ionospheric activity and outflow, during substorms and storms. Their main results and suggestions will be summarized in the following paragraphs. Significant enhancements of O + ions, observed during the growth phase of substorms by CCE (Charge Composition Explorer, one of the three AMPTE spacecraft), were suggested to trigger substorm onset by favouring the occurrence of plasma instabilities. Such O + enhancements can also contribute to the reconfiguration of the near-earth magnetosphere from dipole-like to tail-like during the substorm growth phase by enhancing the near-earth cross-tail current [Daglis and Axford, 1996]. The implications of these observations regarding the role of ionospheric O + in substorm initiation, are consistent with a number of relevant theoretical studies and simulations, as well as with some older observations.a series of studies with data from AMPTE and the subsequent CRRES mission focused on the expansion phase of substorms. They revealed a strong correlation between O + energy density and auroral electrojet intensity during substorm expansion, on timescales of several minutes. Two key characteristics that make these investigations important, are: 1.The timescales involved, which were of the order of several minutes, and 2. The energy range of the measurements covered the critical range between a few kev and a few hundreds kev. The timescales involved in the investigations of the substorm expansion phase were of the order of several minutes. This means that the timescales of the studies were of the time order of substorm phases. Long time averaging which had been used in all relevant studies in the past can mask information on the geospace dynamic response to the solar wind input. Therefore data averages in the several minute range should be used for substorm studies. The energy range between 10 kev and 200 kev had been predicted and was eventually shown to be most important during storms, containing the bulk of the particle energy. The AMPTE/CCE observations were the first to demonstrate that the crucial energy range during substorms is the high-energy range between 20 and 200 kev (Figure 1). The ability of AMPTE/CCE to acquire compositional measurements in the upper energy range permitted the recognition of the importance of ionospheric O + ions, because it is in the upper energy range where their contribution to the active magnetosphere is substantial. 3 (Figure 1 not available in the pdf version of the paper) Figure 1: This diagram shows the energy-density time profile of the three main ion species in the magnetosphere, namely H +, O +, and He ++ [Daglis and Axford, 1996]. The continuous curve is the energy density in the lower energy range (1-17 kev), while the dashed curve is the energy density in the lower energy range (17-300 kev). It is obvious that it is the higher energy range that becomes crucial during substorm expansion. The ability of AMPTE/CCE to acquire compositional measurements in the upper energy range permitted the recognition of the importance of ionospheric O + ions, because it is in the upper energy range where their contribution to the active magnetosphere is substantial.
The statistical studies of AMPTE/CCE data and case studies of CRRES data [Daglis et al., 1994, 1996] showed that the energy density of O + at substorm expansion is strongly correlated with the auroral electrojet (AE) index on timescales of minutes. This finding indicates an intimate relation between O + extraction/acceleration processes and auroral electrojet enhancement. High-ÁE levels during substorm expansion phase result from the enhancement of field-aligned currents closing in the ionosphere. The associated increased dissipation of the auroral currents should favor the extraction and acceleration of ionospheric material. The dissipation of the currents causes heating of the ionosphere and a corresponding rise in ion scale heights. This change should have little effect on light ions which are able to escape easily from the topside ionosphere, but it can have a profound effect on O + escape because of the smaller O + scale height. Thus dramatic increases of the electrojet intensity (equivalent to high-ae index levels) have a direct consequence on the level of O + energy density. The effect of the same increases on the energy densities of the other ion species H +, He +, and He ++ (which are either mixed origin or solar wind origin) is minor or negligible [Daglis et al., 1994]. The AMPTE/CCE data further show a continuing rise in energy density gain of O + after substorm onset [Daglis and Axford, 1996]. This is in contrast with the corresponding onestep-rise of H + and He ++ energy density and indicates a source of O + which remains active for some time after the substorm expansion onset. An additional indication of a continuous ionospheric feeding of the inner plasma sheet with O + ions is the appearance of cigar-like (field-aligned) pitch angle distributions during substorm expansion and recovery. Contrary, the pitch angle distributions of H + and He ++ are normal or isotropic. Recent studies of DMSP (Defense Meteorological Satellite Program) measurements showed that high-latitude field-aligned potential drops, which are efficient agents of ionospheric ion acceleration, exhibit strong enhancements during the substorm recovery phase. Such enhancements will increase the rate of ionospheric ion feeding of the inner plasma sheet during substorm recovery, especially in a series of successive substorms. CRRES observations of several large magnetic storms revealed a dominance of O + around the maximum of the main phase [Daglis, 1997]. The March 24, 1991, storm in particular, was marked by an overwhelming dominance of O + : the contribution of O + alone to the total energy density of the ring current reached 75% (Figure 2). Dst reached a deep minimum of 300 nt in this storm. The CRRES observations of four large and one moderate storm in 1991 showed that Dst and O + increase concurrently. Since it is the enhancement of the ring current that leads to low Dst levels, the CRRES observations suggest that the intensification of the ring current is mainly due to the contribution of O + ions. Taking into account that a fraction of H + (about 30% in the storm-time outer ring current) is also of ionospheric origin, it is clear that the majority of the storm main phase ring current particles are of terrestrial origin. In other words, it is the terrestrial plasma that causes the deep Dst minimum during the main phase of large storms. Regarding the relation of storms, substorms, and terrestrial plasma, it is suggested that series of successive storm-time substorms sustain an 4
enhanced ionospheric feeding of the inner plasma sheet, leading to a rapid ultimate enhancement of the ring current, as observed during large storms. 5 Figure 2 (click here to see): The March 24, 1991, storm, the biggest in 1991, was marked by an overwhelming dominance of O +. Dst reached a deep minimum of 300 nt in this storm, while the contribution of O + alone to the total energy density of the outer ring current surpassed 60% [Daglis, 1997]. The CRRES observations of four large and one moderate storm in 1991 demonstrated that the concurrent increase of Dst and O + is a persistent feature, and that O + is the dominant ion species near the maximum of the main phase of big storms. The role of O +, the major outflowing ionospheric ion, in storm evolution is twofold (see schematic diagram in Figure 3): 1. With its large contribution to the ring current, it induces a rapid decrease of Dst just before the maximum of the storm, and 2. After the storm maximum, O + induces an equally rapid initial recovery of Dst, because its charge exchange lifetime is considerably smaller than that of H + at the ring current energies ( 40 kev). Or, in other words, the terrestrial plasma first provides the final touch and then drives the first (big) nail in the coffin of the ring current during the main phase of large storms. In addition, there are a number of other ways in which terrestrial plasma can influence magnetic storm dynamics. Major effects on the growth, propagation and damping characteristics of electromagnetic cyclotron waves result from inclusion of heavy ions (that is helium or oxygen ions) in the energetic plasma component. O +, which is the heaviest major ion species in the magnetosphere, can dramatically affect electromagnetic wave propagation. Multi-spacecraft observations of Pc pulsations in the inner magnetosphere showed that the presence of substantial quantities of O + results in a mass density five to nine times greater than that of a proton-electron plasma with the same number density. The consequence is that the periods of the waves are two to three times longer than they would have been if H + had been the only ion present. Through its influence on wave properties, O + has one more way to affect ring current decay and regulate storm evolution. Hence, the terrestrial oxygen ions can influence storm dynamics both directly and indirectly: Directly through their rapid increase in and their rapid loss from the inner magnetosphere, and indirectly through their effects on wave properties.
6 Figure 3: The role of O +, the Ring current growth Solar events and enhanced solar wind-magnetosphere coupling Enhanced convection Series of intense substorms Enhanced ionospheric ion feeding of the inner plasma sheet major outflowing ionospheric ion, in storm evolution is twofold: 1. with its large contribution to the ring current, it induces a rapid decrease of Dst just before the maximum of the storm, and 2. After the storm maximum, O + induces an equally rapid initial recovery of Dst, because its charge exchange lifetime is considerably smaller than that of H + at the ring current energies ( 40 kev). Or, in other words, the terrestrial plasma first provides the final touch and then drives the first (big) nail in the coffin. Explosive ring current growth Rapid initial ring current decay Oxygen ions, the terrestrial agents in space, also affect substorm dynamics. An early suggestion regarding the influence of O + on substorm onset was the occurrence of ion tearing instabilities due to locally increased O + abundance. The idea stems from the fact that O + has a relatively large gyroradius (as compared to H + ) and becomes demagnetized earlier in the curved magnetic field of the growth-phase plasma sheet. Relevant observations by AMPTE/CCE provided supportive indications for this scenario [Daglis and Axford, 1996]. It has been estimated that increased O + parallel pressure in the near-earth magnetotail, can contribute to the development of substorm-triggering instabilities. It can furthermore contribute to the intensification and the earthward displacement of the cross-tail current. This process leads to the tail-like distortion of the inner magnetosphere during the substorm growth phase [Daglis et al., 1991], and eventually to the breakup of a substorm-triggering instability. There are a number of model studies that have suggested further ways for O + to influence substorm dynamics, but it is not our scope to refer to all of them in this article. Last but not least, we suggest that O + is the key to storm-substorm relationship. There is an ongoing debate on whether substorms have a direct effect on the storm-time ring current. Observations show that some substorms seem to affect the ring current growth, while some others don t. The following paragraph is a brief assessment of this issue. A model for substorm onsets has predicted that high concentrations of O + in the plasma sheet shift the conditions favorable to substorm breakup to lower L-shells. On the other hand, there have been observations of field-aligned low-energy (< 20 kev) O + ions at the near-
equatorial magnetosphere by the SCATHA (Spacecraft Charging at High Altitudes) and AMPTE missions; the events were explained by direct injection from the ionosphere. Such field-aligned ions have been observed as the lower-energy part of the so-called zipper distributions, where the higher-energy ions are predominantly peaked perpendicular to the magnetic field. Combining the model prediction with the observations, one comes up with a scenario of a feedback between enhanced feeding of the inner magnetosphere with ionospheric O + and substorms occurring at progressively lower L-shells. Such a combination of successive substorms and continuous ionospheric feeding of the inner magnetosphere would explosively intensify the storm-time ring current, and would explain why some substorms seem to influence the storm-time ring current growth, while others don t. This scenario is supported by numerous indications from DMSP satellites that the substorm process occurs progressively closer to Earth during the main phase of magnetic storms. In closing, we should point out that the magnetosphere-ionosphere dynamic interaction is still far from having been understood. Although the magnetosphere-ionosphere system is a system well covered by satellite and ground-based observations during the last twenty years, the dynamic structure and the rapid changes especially during substorms, have often led to inconclusive and much-debated results. Some recent studies, in contrast with the suggestions of Daglis and coworkers, suggested that energized O + ions of terrestrial origin do not have any influence on magnetospheric activity [i.e., Lennartsson et al., 1993]. These studies however, suffered from two basic deficiencies: 1. The postulation of an implicit connection of enhanced magnetospheric activity with an increased abundance of O + anywhere in the magnetotail. However, the ionospheric oxygen outflow usually is localized and transient, and it significantly alters the magnetospheric ion composition in rather small regions. However, increased oxygen abundance in a limited region is enough for instability growth. Therefore it is wrong to exclude the connection between O + ad magnetospheric activity because of the lack of globally increased O + abundance during active periods. 2. The lack of measurements in the upper-energy range (>20 kev). This energy range has been demonstrated to be the most critical energy range during both substorms and storms. It is also the energy range where O + makes its contribution most visible. Therefore any study aiming the assessment of the role of the terrestrial ionosphere in geospace dynamics, should include measurements in the upper energy range. Considering the importance of terrestrial ions in storm and substorm dynamics, it is noteworthy that there have been rather few investigations of the ionospheric ion source and its dependence on and its response to these geospace processes. The ionosphere-magnetosphere connection cannot be overemphasized, and we are just beginning to understand the complex interaction of the two partners. The current International Solar-Terrestrial Physics Program, with its fleet of spacecraft, provides an excellent framework for comprehensive studies of the magnetosphere-ionosphere coupling and of the role of terrestrial plasma in the dynamic Geospace. 7
Acknowledgments I thank Bruce Tsurutani and Steve Suess for helpful comments. 8 Bibliography Axford, W. I., On the origin of radiation belt and auroral primary ions, in Particles and fields in the magnetosphere, edited by B. M. McCormac, pp. 46-59, D. Reidel, Boston, Mass., 1970. Daglis, I. A., The role of magnetosphere-ionosphere coupling in magnetic storm dynamics, in Magnetic Storms, Geophys. Monogr. Ser., edited by B. T. Tsurutani, J. Arballo, W. D. Gonzalez, and Y. Kamide, in press, AGU, Washington, DC, 1997. Daglis, I. A., and W. I. Axford, Fast ionospheric response to enhanced activity in geospace: Ion feeding of the inner magnetotail, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 5047-5065, 1996. Daglis, I. A., E. T. Sarris, and G. Kremser, Ionospheric contribution to the cross-tail current enhancement during the substorm growth phase, J. Atmos. Terr. Phys., 53, 1091-1098, 1991. Daglis, I. A., S. Livi, E. T. Sarris, and B. Wilken, Energy density of ionospheric and solar wind origin ions in the near-earth magnetotail during substorms, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 5691-5703, 1994. Daglis, I. A., W. I. Axford, S. Livi, B. Wilken, M. Grande, and F. Søraas, Auroral ionospheric ion feeding of the inner plasma sheet during substorms, J. Geomagn. Geoelectr., 48, 729-739, 1996. Lennartsson, W., D. M. Klumpar, E. G. Shelley, and J. M. Quinn, Experimental investigation of possible geomagnetic feedback from energetic (0.1 to 16 kev) terrestrial O + ions in the magnetotail current sheet, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 19,443-19,454, 1993. I. A. Daglis, Institute of Ionospheric and Space Research, National Observatory of Athens, Metaxa & Vas. Pavlou Str., 15236 Penteli, Greece.