Preface... Chapter 2. Amplifiers... 25

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Transcription:

Preface........................................... xi Chapter 1. The Transistor............................... 1 1.1. Modeling of transistors............................... 1 1.1.1. An input resistance and a linked source.................... 2 1.1.2. Giacoletto s equivalent diagram........................ 3 1.1.3. Introduction of nonlinearities......................... 4 1.1.4. Spice-type modeling.............................. 7 1.1.5. S or X parameters................................ 7 1.1.6. The Ebers-Moll model............................. 10 1.1.7. Conclusion.................................... 12 1.2. Amplification.................................... 12 1.2.1. Reminder about distortion........................... 12 1.2.2. Reminder about feedback........................... 14 1.2.3. Conclusion.................................... 23 Chapter 2. Amplifiers.................................. 25 2.1. Common emitter amplifier............................. 25 2.1.1. Calculation of the transfer function...................... 25 2.1.2. Calculation of the distortion.......................... 26 2.1.3. Common emitter amplifier with CR feedback, calculation of the gain................................. 30 2.1.4. Common emitter amplifier with CR feedback, distortion calculation.................................. 32 2.1.5. Common emitter amplifier, calculation of the transfer function.................................. 36 2.1.6. Common emitter amplifier, Miller Effect................... 39 2.2. Common base amplifier............................... 40

vi Amplifiers and Oscillators 2.2.1. Calculation of the transfer function...................... 40 2.2.2. Cascode amplifier................................ 41 2.3. Common collector amplifier............................ 55 2.3.1. Calculation of the transfer function...................... 56 2.3.2. Operation with a current source........................ 56 2.3.3. Precautions and conclusions.......................... 57 Chapter 3. Differential Amplifiers........................... 61 3.1. Differential amplifier without a current source.................. 62 3.2. Differential amplifier with a current source.................... 65 3.2.1. Current sources and mirrors.......................... 66 3.2.2. Simulation of the differential stage...................... 70 3.3. Cascode differential amplifier........................... 75 3.3.1. Objective of the architecture of the differential cascode amplifier.................................... 75 3.3.2. Simulation of the differential cascode amplifier............... 77 3.4. Differential cross-quad amplifier.......................... 78 3.4.1. Inversion of the characteristic......................... 78 3.4.2. Simulation around the linearity of the cross-quad differential amplifier.................................. 83 3.5. Cascomp feedforward differential amplifier.................... 86 3.5.1. Calculating the gain of the cascomp differential amplifier.................................. 86 3.5.2. Simulation of the cascomp differential amplifier............... 88 3.5.3. Symmetrical cascomp differential amplifier................. 88 3.6. Differential cascomp feedback amplifier..................... 95 3.7. Comparison of the different structures and conclusion.............. 96 3.7.1. Linearity..................................... 96 3.7.2. Bandwidth.................................... 96 3.7.3. Nature of the transfer function......................... 98 3.8. Exact calculation of transfer functions of differential stages..................................... 98 3.8.1. Generic amplifier stage............................. 98 3.8.2. Calculation of influential parameters..................... 101 3.8.3. Elementary differential stage......................... 103 3.8.4. Differential stage having two emitter resistors... 106 3.8.5. Cascode differential stage........................... 109 3.8.6. Cascomp feedforward differential stage, Tektronix patent.................................... 113 3.8.7. Differential cascomp feedback stage..................... 118 3.8.8. Dimensioning procedure of the cascomp amplifier............. 121 3.9. Conclusion and comparison of differential stages................ 122

vii 3.9.1. Comparison of the linearity of differential stages.............. 122 3.9.2. Comparison of bandwidth at -3dB of the differential stages................................. 126 3.9.3. Supplements to the cross-quad... 130 3.9.4. Cross-quad variants............................... 132 Chapter 4. Amplifier Output Stage.......................... 139 4.1. Class A amplifiers.................................. 140 4.2. Class B amplifiers.................................. 141 4.3. Class AB amplifiers................................. 147 4.3.1. VBE multiplier................................. 150 4.4. Example of output amplifier stages........................ 154 4.4.1. Comparison of single transistor, Darlington or compound pair... 155 Chapter 5. Study and Analysis of Certain Amplifiers.............. 161 5.1. Study of the operational amplifier 741....................... 161 5.2. Study of audio amplifiers.............................. 162 5.2.1. 1970s type amplifier... 162 5.2.2. 1980s type amplifier... 167 5.2.3. 2000s type amplifier... 172 5.3. Transimpedance amplifier............................. 176 5.4. Class E amplifier................................... 183 5.5. Serial-shunt pair amplifier... 192 5.5.1. Polarization and sizing of the amplifier.................... 192 5.5.2. AC and transient simulation.......................... 195 5.5.3. S parameter simulation............................. 198 5.5.4. Application to an oscillator.......................... 198 5.5.5. Variation with a differential stage....................... 202 Chapter 6. Study and Analysis of Oscillators................... 205 6.1. Essential characteristics of oscillators... 205 6.1.1. Oscillator phase noise............................. 206 6.1.2. Oscillator pulling and pushing......................... 209 6.1.3. Oscillator factor of merit, FOM........................ 210 6.2. Theoretical Analysis of Oscillator Operations.................. 210 6.2.1. Feedback and reaction............................. 210 6.2.2. Calculation procedure............................. 213 6.2.3. Example with a third-order transfer function................. 214 6.2.4. Distortion in oscillators............................. 215 6.2.5. Validity of the linear model of the oscillator................. 216

viii Amplifiers and Oscillators Chapter 7. Low Frequency Oscillators....................... 219 7.1. Wien bridge oscillators............................... 219 7.1.1. Basic Wien bridge oscillator.......................... 219 7.1.2. Wien bridge oscillator with level regulation................. 223 7.1.3. Wien bridge oscillator with cascomp amplifier............... 225 7.2. Phase-shift oscillator... 227 7.3. Oscillator around the state variable filter... 230 7.3.1. Simple oscillator without regulation... 230 7.3.2. Level-controlled oscillator........................... 234 7.3.3. Oscillator with output recombination..................... 237 7.3.4. Note on distortion rate and measurement................... 240 7.4. Other types of LF oscillators............................ 241 7.4.1. Shunted T-filter oscillator... 241 7.5. Conclusion on low frequency AOP oscillators.................. 244 Chapter 8. High Frequency Oscillators....................... 245 8.1. Colpitts oscillator.................................. 246 8.1.1. Analysis with a perfect amplifier....................... 246 8.1.2. Analysis with the transistor model...................... 248 8.1.3. Conclusions................................... 254 8.1.4. Simulations................................... 254 8.2. Colpitts series oscillator............................... 267 8.2.1. Analysis with a perfect amplifier....................... 267 8.2.2. Model analysis of the transistor........................ 268 8.2.3. Simulations................................... 271 8.3. Vackar oscillator................................... 279 8.3.1. Analysis with a perfect amplifier....................... 280 8.3.2. Model analysis of the transistor........................ 282 8.3.3. Simulations................................... 286 8.4. Parallel Clapp oscillator............................... 292 8.4.1. Analysis with a perfect amplifier....................... 292 8.4.2. Model analysis of the transistor........................ 294 8.4.3. Simulations................................... 295 8.5. Clapp series oscillator................................ 301 8.5.1. Analysis with a perfect amplifier....................... 301 8.5.2. Model analysis of the transistor........................ 303 8.5.3. Conclusions................................... 305 8.5.4. Simulations................................... 305 8.6. SAW oscillator.................................... 311 8.7. Comparison of the different oscillators... 317 8.7.1. Oscillators with a single transistor....................... 317 8.7.2. Darlington and/or cascode oscillators..................... 318

ix 8.7.3. Complements on the oscillator Clapp resonance series........... 320 8.8. Transformation of oscillators into VCO...................... 326 8.8.1. Variable capacity diodes............................ 326 8.8.2. Colpitts VCO... 327 8.8.3. Colpitts VCO, series resonance... 330 8.8.4. Vackar VCO................................... 332 8.8.5. Clapp VCO................................... 335 8.8.6. Clapp VCO, concrete realization....................... 337 Chapter 9. Differential Oscillators.......................... 343 9.1. Simple differential oscillator............................ 344 9.1.1. Influence of the base-emitter capacity.................... 348 9.1.2. Influence of the base-collector capacity.................... 348 9.1.3. Simulations................................... 349 9.2. Simple differential oscillator with SAW resonator................ 353 9.3. Simple differential oscillator, cascode....................... 356 9.4. Differential oscillator, cross-coupled with buffer... 358 9.5. Differential oscillator, cross-coupled Colpitts... 362 9.6. Differential oscillator, bandpass filter... 365 9.7. Variations of the differential oscillator... 368 9.8. Variations of unclassifiable oscillators... 371 9.9. Transformation of differential oscillators into VCO............... 376 9.9.1. Cross-coupled and buffer differential oscillators............... 376 9.9.2. Differential cross-coupled cascode oscillators... 382 9.9.3. Cross-coupled bandpass differential oscillators... 384 Chapter 10. Bonus Oscillators... 387 10.1. Parallel resonance oscillator............................ 389 10.2. Series resonant oscillator............................. 392 10.3. Differential oscillator, improvements....................... 395 10.3.1. Differential oscillator, basic diagram.................... 396 10.3.2. Differential oscillator, Q increase...................... 398 10.3.3. Differential oscillator, Q increase, improvements............. 400 10.4. Differential oscillator SAW, improvements................... 401 10.5. Conclusion..................................... 401 Bibliography........................................ 403 Index... 405

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