Topic 1: Development and Regulation of Artificial Intelligence I. Background: Until the 20th century, the notion of technology having the capacity to

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1 General Assembly Edison Advanced Committee Topic 1: Development and Regulation of Artificial Intelligence I. Background: Until the 20th century, the notion of technology having the capacity to make decisions independently and to function without the need of human supervision was unimaginable. However, in 1951, the first functioning artificial intelligence (AI) program was designed to run on the Ferranti Mark 1 machine at the University of Manchester, a checkers-playing program written by Christopher Strachey and a chess-playing program written by Dietrich Prinz. Through innovative achievements such as that of Strachey and Prinz, the use of artificial intelligence rapidly increased alongside industrialization and globalization in the last half of the 20th century on an international scale. AI has become integral in developed nations economically. The Accenture Institute for High Performance revealed that, by 2035, AI has the capacity to double annual economic growth rates in the economies of developed nations. In the United States alone, the annual growth rate increased from 2.6% to 4.6%, translating into an additional $8.3 trillion in gross value added (GVA) with the inclusion of widespread AI implementation. Additionally, in the United Kingdom, AI has the potential of adding an additional $814 billion USD to its economy, increasing the annual growth rate of GVA from 2.5% to 3.9%. Despite the monetary benefits AI poses to developed nations, developing nations are to be the ones most impacted by AI specifically in three key areas: agriculture, resource provision, and healthcare. There are multiple ways in which AI partakes in the agricultural field including agricultural robots, crop and soil monitoring, and predictive analytics. Agricultural robots are robots programmed to autonomously complete specific agricultural work such as harvesting crops more efficiently than human laborers or manned agricultural machines. For instance, Harvest CROO Robotics has developed a robot to help speed the process of crop harvesting seeing as the lack of laborers has reportedly led to millions of dollars of revenue losses worldwide. Harvest CROO Robotics claims that its robot can harvest eight acres in a single day and replace thirty human laborers. An additional form is Crop and Soil Monitoring where agriculture companies leverage deep-learning algorithms and computer vision in order to process

2 data captured by drones as well as software-based technology that monitors soil and crop health. The last way AI affects the agricultural field is through predictive analytics, which are machine-learning models that are developed to both predict and track environmental factors such as air quality, weather changes, and soil erosion which can potentially impact crop yields. In regards to resource provision, an AI machine called Harvesting is currently using satellite data of Earth s surface to find agricultural areas that require investment or integral agricultural systems to help agricultural institutions distribute money more efficiently. The owner of Harvesting named Ruchit Garg stated, Our hope is that in using this technology we would be able to segregate such farmers and villages and have banks or governments move dollars to the right set of people (Ovenden). In addition, in developing countries, AI s increased presence in healthcare can prove to be very beneficial. When the Ebola virus broke out in African communities in February 2014, a disease ecologist at the Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies Barbara Han stated, Using machine learning methods developed for artificial intelligence, we were able to bring together data from ecology, biogeography, and public health to identify bat species with a high probability of harboring Ebola and other filoviruses. Understanding which species carry these viruses, and where they are located, is essential to preventing future spillovers (Ovenden). Algorithms can be created and programmed into AI technology to quickly learn how pathogens of a virus reproduce and spread as well as figure out methods of quarantine and halting the spread of virus. Additionally, once an overview of a virus is set up, AI medical technology can then be used to diagnose the best treatment methods of a virus. In addition, in a survey conducted by ARM Surveys Ltd., 47% of respondents stated they d rather receive treatment from an medically-programmed AI robot than a human doctor. Also, according to Accenture Analysis, the AI healthcare market is estimated to be worth $6.6 billion USD by 2021, and, by 2026, clinical health AI applications could possibly generate $150 billion USD annually in savings for the US healthcare economy. In the wake of exponentially developing military technology, artificial intelligence has been discussed and implemented as a new source of weaponry. Currently, over thirty nations including China, the United States, the United Kingdom, Israel, Pakistan, and Iran have

3 implemented armed drones, a mode of AI weaponry called unmanned combat aerial vehicles (UCAVs). In addition, a major form of AI being used in military technology can be seen in lethal autonomous weapons (LAWs), also known as lethal autonomous weapon systems (LAWS), lethal autonomous robots (LAR), robotic weapons, or killer robots, which are a type of military robot whose function is to autonomously select and attack military targets without the need of human intervention or supervision. In 2018, the current level of autonomy given to these weapons are limited to the need of a human giving final approval to attack. LAWS are not the same as existing drones, UCAVS or "combat drones", because of the fact that these drones are remote-controlled by human pilots. Even though combat drones have the capacity to fly autonomously, unlike LAWS, they are unable to fire autonomously and require a human operator. Additionally, there are two types of automatic systems that are used by nation s militaries, most commonly used by nations such as the United States, Russia, Syria, and North Korea. First, there is the automatic offense system, which allows for a higher level of autonomy and includes, UCAVs and drones. UVAC and drones of the automatic offense system are primarily used for reconnaissance and offensive initiatives that are outside a nation s own territory. Second, there is an automatic defensive system which primarily incorporates LAWS and autonomous missile strikes. This system is also heavily used by Israel. In 2017, the Israeli Minister Ayoub Kara stated that Israel is developing LAWS as small as flies as a means to assassinate leaders of fundamentalist groups such as Hezbollah and Hamas as a means to strengthen Israel s defense mechanisms, and that these robots may be operational by This has led to an outcry in the international community and propagated fear of the unknown capacities of AI weaponry, reinforcing the existing cultural stigmas against its development. Despite the fact that this new form of weaponry is undergoing extensive research and ethical scrutiny, these automated weapons are being used as defense mechanisms against high-speed rockets and missiles. What must be taken into consideration in the face of new development of these weapons are the universally understood ethics of war. Although manufacturers of these weapons including General Atomics Aeronautical Systems, BAE Systems, and Northrop Grumman all state that precision is their highest priority, other

4 organizations using AI weaponry could potentially succumb to using its capacity to harm indistinguishable civilian areas from aerial viewpoints in conflict zones. In addition, cultural stigmas and ethical issues halt the development of AI weaponry. Many civilians have what has been culturally deemed a killer robot mentality, in which people believe that with the advancement of AI, particularly regarding Smarter Intelligence robots and autonomous weaponry, humans will lose control over this technology, and the status quo between man and manmade will therefore be threatened by technology. In July 2015, over a thousand experts in AI drafted and signed a letter which warned people of the threat of the arms race in military artificial intelligence and demanded a ban to be placed on all autonomous weapons. The letter was presented at the 24th International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI-15); some of its notable signatories included Stephen Hawking, Elon Musk, Steve Wozniak, Noam Chomsky, Skype co-founder Jaan Tallinn and Google DeepMind co-founder Demis Hassabis. Another major concern is the notion that some LAWs may violate International Humanitarian Law, particularly regarding the principle of distinction that necessitates a LAW s ability to distinguish between combatants and non-combatants. Moreover, it requires the ability to uphold the principle of proportionality, which is to maintain civilian damage that is proportional to the military aim. According to Forrester Research, over 70% of companies implemented some form of newly-developed AI technology in 2017 including Alphabet (through DeepMind and Google), Amazon, Apple, Facebook, IBM and Microsoft. In addition, market researcher International Data Corporation (IDC) stated that the global spending of AI technology will increase by a factor of four, yielding projections at $46 billion by 2020, up from an estimated $12.5 billion in Additionally, the international community is now seeing increasing disparities between leading nations such as China and the United States and other developing nations in regard to the development of new AI technology. In 2017, China revealed its intention of making itself the global leader in AI industries. In order to do so, it began accumulating industrial automations through AI. Baidu Inc., a technology company deemed the Google of China that specializes in AI development has been focusing on natural language processing as well as voice recognition and automated communicative mechanisms, where robots have the potential to uphold

5 conversation with both each other and humans. Other technological companies in China have replicated Baidu s research development, including Tencent Holdings Ltd., a multinational investment holding conglomerate that has recently opened its own AI lab in January Additionally, Didi Chuxing Technology Co. raised $4 billion USD in the past year to begin conducting AI research, planning to develop driverless cars manufactured in China to replicate Elon Musk s Tesla Model S. China s intention is to create a national AI industry to rival that of the international industry. By the end of 2017, collectively, China was able to raise $15 billion USD for solely AI development. Thus, this conveys the resolve leading nations have established in furthering their use and development of AI. This increase in funding could create even greater economic disparities in the AI field between developing and developed nations. II. UN Involvement: On 7 June 2017, the United Nations hosted the AI for Good Global Summit, which was conducted by the UN International Telecommunications Union (ITU) as well as the XPRIZE Foundation. This summit s focus was to unite innovation with humanitarian organizations. The UN Secretary-General stated at the summit, Artificial Intelligence has the potential to accelerate progress towards a dignified life, in peace and prosperity, for all people. The time has arrived for all of us governments, industry and civil society to consider how AI will affect our future. Additionally, in a meeting at the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) on 11 October 2017, ECOSOC introduced the idea of using AI to help accomplish the UN s sustainable development goals. In this, an AI robot named Sophia spoke at the conference in order to show the technological capabilities AI has and how these capabilities can assist the international community in its development. Despite its overall positive opinion of AI, in 2017, the UN set up a research unit in the Netherlands to look at AI s impact on global society as well as its capacity to be detrimental to humans. This agency run by Hague used it s research to create an integrated overview on AI s advantages and risks. The senior strategy advisor at the UN Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute (UNICRI) Irakli Beridze stated that, We re at a crossroads and it s difficult to overstate the impact this technology is going to have on our lives. It s just starting to make itself felt. Police are looking at how criminals and terrorists are likely to use artificial intelligence, for

6 example. And governments and economists are wondering if we re entering an era of mass unemployment due to rapid advances in robotics (Cluskey). Additionally, a key area of study for this group is the potential impact of Military robots or autonomous military technology. Because of its harmful capabilities, many nations within the international community are weary of allowing the militarization of this technology. In 2017, the members of the Advisory Board on Disarmament Matters discussed the issue of AI s impact on international security with the Secretary-General of the United Nations António Guterres at its 67th Session of the Secretary-General s Advisory Board on Disarmament Matters. This topic was considered a frontier technology issue regarding its potential impact on international security as well as a nation s sovereignty. MoreoverAdditionally, it was discussed how AI s impact can revolutionize international community as well as its security. Again, the UNICRI s research and overview on AI was brought up due to its inclusion of both AI s risks and advantages, which was translated by the Advisory Board into both the benefits and threats AI s impact can have on international security. Ultimately, the Board stated that International Humanitarian Law (IHL) and International Human Rights Law (IHRL) should always prevail, regardless of the international communities use of AI. III. Questions to Consider: 1. How will the increase of Artificial Intelligence in the international community affect the variation of development between developing and developed nations? 2. How can the UN help artificial intelligence stimulate economic growth in developing countries? 3. How can the UN regulate and ensure the safe development of AI technology? 4. In what ways can the international community combat the proliferation of AI weaponry? 5. In what ways can AI assist in the UN s Sustainable Development Goals? 6. What are more initiatives the UN can undertake to proliferate AI technology throughout the international community? 7. In what ways can AI be implemented in agricultural and business fields on an international scale?

7 Work Cited: 1. Babkin, Petr et. al.. Generating Chat Bots From Web API Specifications, IBM, pecifications. 2. Cluskey, Peter. New UN agency set to monitor threats from AI and robotics, The Irish Times, 28 Sep. 2017, 3. Eagle, Nathan and Eric Horvitz. Papers from the AAAI Spring Symposium, ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE FOR DEVELOPMENT, AAAI PRESS, aaai.org/press/reports/symposia/spring/ss php. 4. Ismail, Nick. Cyber security and AI predictions 2018, Information Age, 12 Jan. 2018, 5. Ovenden, James. AI in Developing Countries, Innovation Enterprise, 6 Oct. 2017, channels.theinnovationenterprise.com/articles/ai-in-developing-countries. 6. Scharre, Paul. Why We Must Not Build Automated Weapons of War, TIME, 25 Sep. 2017, time.com/ /robots-artificial-intelligence-war/. 7. The Future of Everything Sustainable Development in the Age of Rapid Technological Change, United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, United Nations, -artificial-intelligence-could-help-achieve-economic-growth-and-reduce-inequalities/.

8 Non-Proliferation of WMDs Edison Advanced Committee I. Background: Weapons of mass destruction, or WMDs, are chemical, biological or nuclear weapons capable of causing mass casualties. The term of WMD was first coined and used strategically in World War I ( ) in which the German army on April 22, 1915 released chlorine gas from cylinders in Ypres, Belgium causing around 2,800 casualties. The British soon retaliated later using the same chlorine gas against the German troops to inflict 3,200 casualties, each side together using a total of about 124,000 tons of chemical weapons. Later, during 1939, Japan used plague-infected fleas and flies covered in cholera to effectively eliminate 500 hundred thousand Chinese citizens. World War II ( ) likewise saw the advent of nuclear weapons, specifically when the United States dropped the atomic bombs Little Boy and Fat Man on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan, respectively. Even after the horrifying result of the atomic bombs in which a total of 226,000 people were killed, the proliferation of WMDs still continued, reaching an alarming rate during the Cold War. The ensuing Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States resulted in United States nuclear arsenal reaching a peak of 23,317 to Russia s 40,159 on The capabilities of WMDs during this time period were recognized by the United Kingdom (1952) and the French (1960) eventually spreading to even more nations, most notably the Middle East in which states such as Syria are currently rushing towards the development and use of these WMDs. Chemical Weapons of Mass Destruction A Chemical Weapon or CW is a specialized munition that uses chemicals such as nerve gas, tear gas and pepper spray to inflict death or harm upon a large mass of humans. Currently, there are four major countries that are in possession of chemical weapons: Egypt, Israel, North Korea and Syria. Many of these countries have still failed to sign and ratify the Chemical

9 Weapons Convention to destroy their chemical WMDs. Egypt is thought to possess production facilities for sarin, VX (nerve agent), mustard gas and phosgene. Previously, before the Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty of 1979, the country had played a large role in the exportation of chemical weapons supplying Iraq with mustard gas and nerve agents. It has had one facility identified that is involved in offensive activities. North Korea likewise did not sign the CWC and has maintained production of chemical weapons since the mid-1950s. Their current program includes production, research and weaponization of chemical agents, thought to possess as much as 5000 tons. While Syria as of 2016 has had its chemical weapons stockpile allegedly destroyed by the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), suspicions in the west indicate that Syria has hidden as much as 10% (130 tonnes) of its stockpile. Syria has also been confirmed to be in production of four chemical weapon sites, outputting several hundred liters of chemical weapons annually. A recent attack on Douma, Syria, on April 9, 2018 resulted in the death of 70 civilians, thought to be the work of the Assad regime. The greatest danger regarding chemical weapons is its ability to not only kill mass amounts of civilians and unprepared allied forces, but also to remain in groundwater and soil long after they are dispersed, making them an ongoing threat to civilian populations. Tracing contaminations back to a specific country is hard however, as many times it takes a while for the chemical to seep into the city/town s water supply. Biological Weapons of Mass Destruction A Biological Weapon or BW utilizes biological toxins or infectious agents such as bacteria, fungi and viruses to incapacitate or inflict death upon masses of humans, plants or animals. The stockpiling of biological weapons has been a problem, specifically when terrorists or other non-state actors such as Aum Shinrikyo have used these weapons to gain a strategic advantage in inciting fear in its opposers. In 1995, Aum Shinrikyo, a Japanese extremist cult, released sarin gas inside the Tokyo subway, killing 13 people and injuring thousands. The cult has also tried but failed in a series of anthrax assaults nearby the Tokyo airport and two U.S. military bases. Following this incident, in 2002, Al-Qaeda conducted crude experiments on the lethality of cyanide creams, ricin, mustard, sarin and botulinum. It is such that the Biological

10 Weapons Convention, which prohibits the use and advancements of offensive biological weapons of all signatory nations (179), holds no effect over these groups. Biological weapons are appealing to terrorists, costing $600 to $2000 less than other WMDs while also being virtually untraceable due to having an incubation period of 3 to 7 days within the organism. A small biological attack from the bacteria, Salmonella typhimurium, could result in around 5,000 people becoming ill. Recently in 2014, a laptop belonging to an ISIS-affiliated Tunisian physicist, was found to contain files on weaponizing the bubonic plague bacteria obtained from common animals. This finding is alarming considering finding biological weapons would be relatively simple for the group to release, only presenting a risk to the handler due the weapons inability to target a defined set of victims. Biological weapons falling into the hands of terrorist groups is thus the greatest fear seeing as these groups lack concern for the weapon s inability to aim. Nuclear Weapons of Mass Destruction Arguably the most dangerous class of WMDs, a Nuclear Weapon is an explosive device that derives its explosive force from nuclear reactions either from just fission or the combination of fission and fusion. Currently the nations of Russia, United States, China, India, Israel, France, North Korea, Pakistan and the United Kingdom all have stockpiles of nuclear weapons with Russia possessing the greatest amount at 7,300, according to the Federation of American Scientists. In 2002, Iran s previously undeclared nuclear facilities was searched by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to find the state appeared to be in violation of the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons Treaty (NPT). However, Iran still continued its uranium enrichment in defiance of the NPT and the Security Council where it was revealed to have systematically concealed techniques for nuclear development. North Korea despite being a signatory to the NPT, also continued its use of nuclear development program where in August of 2016 in Punggye-ri, an underground nuclear explosion was identified, estimated to hold a yield of 10 kilotons TNT. Nuclear weapons range in sizes from 6-20,000 kilotons, where 1 kiloton is equal to a 1000 tons of TNT, capable of destroying everything within an 11 mi radius of the impact zone.

11 Placed in a heavily populated zone such as a city, nuclear weapons could inflict a massive amount of casualties estimated at 150,000. The explosion in a major city would also result in a destabilized society, economy and way of life according to the United States representative of the Disarmament Committee. Efforts against the Proliferation of WMDs The first effort against the proliferation of WMDs arrived on June 17, 1925, when the Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or Other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare was established, banning the use of these weapons but not the research or production of this warfare. In July of 1970, the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) went into effect, preventing the spread and development of nuclear weapons while also working to achieve nuclear disarmament with over a 191 current members. Later in 1972, the Biological Weapons Convention was established, prohibiting the research and production of offensive biological weapons to which both the United States and the Soviet Union ratified. Similarly in 1992, the Chemical Weapons Convention was signed, outlawing the large-scale production or stockpiling of chemical weapons in over 192 member states as of The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) has also been involved in combating the proliferation of WMDs; since the institution of the 1999 WMD Initiation which sought to further integrate the military aspects of NATO work in responding to WMD proliferation, there is no NATO member country that has a chemical or biological weapons programme. Internationally, NATO organizes an annual non-proliferation conference involving non-members countries from six continents as an effort towards providing potential solutions and promoting informal discussion. II. UN Involvement: Realizing this growing need to subsequently contain the proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, the United Nations has been active in procuring solutions. For one, the United Nations has been diligent through the United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs (UNODA)

12 which supports several disarmament WMD policies around the world, announcing a relatively new ongoing initiative in September 2013 that illustrates steps towards declaring the Middle East a region separated from Weapons of Mass Destruction. The Office has also organized the first-ever training course for the investigation of possible chemical biological and toxin agents, which was conducted in Umea, Sweden from May to June of The UNODA has collectively gathered the support from the countries of Algeria, Bahrain, Comoros, Djibouti, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Qatar and Oman. The United Nations has also used the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC), Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), and the Comprehensive Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) to neutralize the proliferation of WMDs. Entered into force on March 26, 1975, the BWC prohibits the use of the development, production, and stockpiling of biological toxin weapons. As stated in Article 1 of the BWC, Each State Party to this Convention undertakes never in any circumstances to develop, produce, stockpile or otherwise acquire or retain microbial or other biological agents, or toxins whatever their origin or method of production, of types and in quantities that have no justification for prop hylactic, protective or other peaceful purposes. The BWC, as of January 2018, stands with over 180 states committed towards non-proliferation of biological weapons. Coming into effect in 1997, the CWC prohibits the large-scale use, development, production, stockpiling and transfer of chemical weapons. As of May 2018, 193 states have become parties to the CWC and accept its obligations. Finally, the CTBT, adopted by the UN General Assembly on September 10, 1996, bans all nuclear explosions, for both civilian and military purposes, in all environments. The treaty uses infrasound and radionuclide monitoring to ensure compliance with over 337 facilities worldwide. These specific technologies are used to monitor the underground, the waters, and the atmosphere for any sign of a nuclear explosion. The United Nations has likewise been diligent through the United Nations Regional Centre for Peace and Disarmament in Asia and the Pacific (UNRCPD), working to establish nuclear free zones in Asia and the Pacific. The UNRCPD focuses on the reinforcement of three treaties: the Treaty of Rarotonga in South Pacific, the Treaty on a Nuclear-Weapon-Free-Zone in Central Asia and the Treaty of Bangkok in Southeast Asia. While the treaty possesses strong

13 regional support from member states, it nevertheless faces the challenge of including the three uncomplying states of India, Pakistan and the Democratic People s Republic of Korea (which had withdrawn from the treaty in 2003). The UN has been additionally active in drafting and passing resolutions towards combating the proliferation of WMDs. Adopted by the General Assembly on December 2017, A/RES/72/24 titled, Establishment of a nuclear-weapon-free zone in the region of the Middle East worked to encourage all countries in the Middle East to place all relative nuclear activities under the supervision of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). The IAEA essentially monitors the area with nuclear activities for any signs of heavily enriched uranium to ensure that nuclear proliferation does not occur. Also adopted by the General Assembly on December 2017, A/RES/72/67 titled, The risk of nuclear proliferation calls and encourages all states, member or non-member, to adhere to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons as a preventative measure against any further nuclear weapon developments. To combat the proliferation of WMDs among terrorist or non-state actors, A/RES/1540 was adopted, encouraging all States to refrain from providing any form of support to non-state actors that attempt to develop, acquire, manufacture, possess, transport, transfer or use nuclear, chemical or biological weapons and their means of delivery, in particular for terrorist purposes. Ultimately limiting terrorist groups such as ISIS from acquiring WMDs in the future. Unfortunately, no Non-governmental Organization exists that has helped reduce the proliferation of WMDs. However, while NGOs cannot directly fix the problem of proliferation, they can aid the victims of WMD attacks. For example, Partners for Relief and Development has provided a total of 134 Health workers and medics combined, while simultaneously running over 68 sustainable school projects. Partners for Relief and Development particularly targets victims of recent attacks, providing immediate relief to the afflicted area. Another NGO working to provide relief towards victims of WMDs, CARE, has worked in nearly 94 countries to provide for more than 80 million people through humanitarian aid projects and initiatives. In South Sudan alone, CARE has provided emergency water, hygiene services and education as well as nutrition specifically after the outbreak of violence that took

14 place during the South Sudanese civil war of CARE likewise brings aid and additional materials to over 40 health facilities in Upper Nile States and Unity. The next logical step for the UN would be to focus more on giving incentives towards countries that are currently in the process of destroying their WMD cache so as to encourage resilient countries to destroy their caches as well. III. Questions to Ponder: 1. What are some ways to incentivize unwilling states to quit the proliferation of WMDs? 2. What are some innovative solutions towards preventing terrorist groups from acquiring biological and chemical weapons? 3. What past regulations has your delegation taken to prevent the proliferation and the development of WMDs? 4. What specific treaties has your delegation signed? 5. Does your delegation believe in disarmament of countries currently possessing WMDs? If so, how can this be implemented to be effective?

15 Works Cited Amiga, Aimee, and Ruth Schuster. EU Report: ISIS Could Commit Chemical or Biological Terror Attack in West. Haaretz.com, Haaretz Com, 10 Jan. 2018, k-in-west Arms Control Today. Nonproliferation Benefits of India Deal Remain Elusive Arms Control Association, The Biological Threat. Nuclear Threat Initiative - Ten Years of Building a Safer World, Biological Warfare: an Emerging Threat in the 21st Century: 1/01. Stanford University, news.stanford.edu/pr/01/bioterror117.html. Biological Weapons UNODA. United Nations, United Nations, The Biological Weapons Convention. Nuclear Threat Initiative - Ten Years of Building a Safer World, Doornbos, Harald, and Jenan Moussa. Found: The Islamic State's Terror Laptop of Doom. Foreign Policy, Foreign Policy, 28 Aug. 2014, foreignpolicy.com/2014/08/28/found-the-islamic-states-terror-laptop-of-doom/. French Nuclear Program. Atomic Heritage Foundation, 14 Feb. 2017, HLS Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD). History and Types of Weapons of Mass Destruction Homeland Security Degree Online, hlsonline.eku.edu/hls-101-weapons-mass-destruction-wmd. The Long History of Weapons of Mass Destruction. OpenDemocracy,

16 Newman, Tim. Biological Weapons and Bioterrorism: Past, Present, and Future. Medical News Today, MediLexicon International, 28 Feb. 2018, Nuclear Weapons. Our World in Data, ourworldindata.org/nuclear-weapons. Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) - History Of Usage And Proliferation. The Civil War - North, Northern, Southern, South, Total, and Confederacy, TORY-USAGE-PROLIFERATION.html. UN Security Council Resolution 1540 (2004) UNODA. United Nations, United Nations, Wagner, Daniel. Biological Weapons and Virtual Terrorism. The Huffington Post, TheHuffingtonPost.com, 2 Oct. 2017, 4b034ae778d4c3c.