Particle Image Velocimetry

Transcription

1 Markus Raffel Christian E. Willert Steve T. Wereley Jiirgen Kompenhans Particle Image Velocimetry A Practical Guide Second Edition With 288 Figures and 42 Tables < J Springer

2 Contents Preface V 1 Introduction Historical Background Principle of Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) Development of PIV During the Last Two Decades PIV in Aerodynamics Major Technological Milestones of PIV 11 2 Physical and Technical Background Tracer Particles ' Fluid Mechanical Properties Light Scattering Behavior Particle Generation and Supply Seeding of Liquids Seeding of Gases Light Sources Lasers Features and Components of PIV Lasers White Light Sources Light Sheet Optics Volume Illumination of the Flow Imaging of Small Particles Diffraction Limited Imaging Lens Aberrations Perspective Projection Discussion of the Perspective Error Basics of Microscopic Imaging In-Plane Spatial Resolution of Microscopic Imaging Microscopes Typically Used in Micro-PIV Confocal Microscopic Imaging 65

3 XVI Contents 2.7 Photographic Recording A Brief Description of the Chemical Processes Introduction to Performance Diagrams Digital Image Recording ~ Characteristics of CCD Sensors Characteristics of CMOS Sensors Sources of Noise 72 2;8.4 Spectral Characteristics Linearity and Dynamic Range Standard Video and PIV The Video Standard Mathematical Background of Statistical PIV Evaluation Particle Image Locations Image Intensity Field ' Mean Value, Autocorrelation and Variance of a Single.. Exposure Recording Cross-Correlation of a Pair of Two Singly Exposed Recordings Correlation of a Doubly Exposed Recording Expected Value of Displacement Correlation Optimization of Correlation 92 4 PIV Recording Techniques Film Cameras for PIV Example of a PIV Film Camera High-Speed Film Cameras Digital Cameras for PIV Full-Frame CCD Frame Transfer CCD Interline Transfer CCD Full-Frame Interline Transfer CCD Active Pixel CMOS Sensor High-Speed CCD Cameras High-Speed CMOS Cameras for PIV Recording Single Frame/Multi-Exposure Recording General Aspects of Image Shifting Ill Optimization of PIV Recording for Autocorrelation Analysis by Image Shifting '... Ill Realizations of Image Shifting Layout of a Rotating Mirror System Calculation of the Mirror Image Shift Experimental Determination of the Mirror Image Shift 117

4 Contents XVII 4.4 Multi-Frame PIV Recording Video-Based Implementation of Double Frame/Single Exposure PIV Image Evaluation Methods for PIV Correlation and Fourier Transform Correlation Optical Fourier Transform Digital Fourier Transform Summary of PIV Evaluation Methods.' Optical PIV Evaluation Young's Fringes Method.., Digital PIV Evaluation : Digital Spatial Correlation in PIV Evaluation Correlation Signal Enhancement Autocorrelation of Doubly Exposed PIV Images Advanced Digital Interrogation Techniques Peak Detection and Displacement Estimation Measurement Noise and Accuracy Synthetic Particle Image Generation Optimization of Particle Image Diameter Optimization of Particle Image Shift Effect of Particle Image Density Variation of Image Quantization Levels Effect of Background Noise Effect of Displacement Gradients Effect of Out-of-Plane Motion Post-Processing of PIV Data Data Validation Global Histogram Operator Dynamic Mean Value Operator Vector Difference Test ' Median Test Normalized Median Test Other Validation Filters Implementation of Data Validation Algorithms Replacement Schemes Vector Field Operators Estimation of Differential Quantities Standard Differentiation Schemes Alternative Differentiation Schemes Uncertainties and Errors in Differential Estimation Estimation of Integral Quantities Path Integrals - Circulation Path Integrals - Mass Flow 201

5 XVIII Contents Area Integrals Pressure and Forces from PIV Data Vortex Detection Three-Component PIV Measurements ' Stereo PIV Reconstruction Geometry Stereo Viewing Calibration Dual-Plane PIV Mode of Operation Conclusions Three Component PIV Measurements in a Volume Principles of Tomographic-PIV Micro-PIV Introduction Overview of Micro-PIV ^PIV Seeding Special Processing Methods for /xpiv Recordings /upiv Summary : Examples of Application Liquid Flows ' Vortex-Free-Surface Interaction Study of Thermal Convection and Couette Flows Boundary Layers Boundary Layer Instabilities...'..., Turbulent Boundary Layer Transonic Flows *..., Cascade Blade with Cooling Air Ejection Transonic Flow Above an Airfoil Shock Wave/Turbulent Boundary Layer Interaction Stereo PIV Applied to a Vortex Ring Flow Imaging Configuration and Hardware Experimental Results Dual-plane PIV Applied to a Vortex Ring Flow Imaging Configuration and Hardware Experimental Results Large Scale Rayleigh-Benard Convection Introduction Stereo PIV in the Barrel of Ilmenau Conclusions Analysis of PIV Image Sequences Introduction Evaluation of a Simulated PIV Image Sequence Investigation of Separation on a SD7003 Airfoil..300

6 Contents XIX 9.8 Velocity and Pressure Maps Above a Transonic Delta Wing Coherent Structure Detection in a Backward-Facing Step Flow Introduction Vortex Detection Algorithm Application to the Backward-Facing Step Flow Conclusions Quantitative Study of Vortex Pairing in a Circular Air Jet Introduction Acoustically Excited Jet Facility, PIV Measurements PIV Uncertainty: Random Errors Particle Centrifugation in the Vortex Cores: Bias Error Post-Processing: Automatic Vortex Tracking Acoustical Prediction Conclusions Stereo and Volume Approaches to Helicopter Aerodynamics Rotor Flow Investigation.: Wind Tunnel Measurements of Rotor Blade Vortices Measurement of Rotor Blade Vortices in Hover Stereo PIV Applied to a Transonic Turbine Optical Configuration Results PIV Applied to a Transonic Centrifugal Compressor PIV in Reacting Flows. ; A High-Speed PIV Study on Trailing-Edge Noise Sources Introduction Setup, Measurements and Procedure...' Conclusions Volume PIV Supersonic PIV Measurements on a Space Shuttle Model Multiplane Stereo PIV Introduction Application ' Conclusion Microscale PIV Wind Tunnel Investigations Introduction., The Test Setup Results and Discussion Conclusions Micro-PIV I Application of PIV to Microscopic Flow Examples of Micro-PIV 363

7 XX Contents Differences from Macroscale PIV Advanced Technique: Confocal Micro-PIV Micro-PIV II Flow in a MicroChannel Flow in a Micronozzle Flow Around a Blood Cell Flow in Microfluidic Biochip Nano-PIV Background..' Nano-PIV Studies of Microscale. Electroosmotic Flow Micro-PIV in Life Science Introduction Biocompatible ^PIV/MPTV Experimental Results :.' Related Techniques 389, 10.1 Deformation Measurement by Digital Image Correlation (DIC) : Deformation Measurement in a High-Pressure Facility Background Oriented Schlieren Technique (BOS) Introduction Principle of the BOS Technique Application of the BOS to Compressible Vortices Conclusions 401 References 403 Mathematical Appendix >... : 437 A.I Convolution with the Dirac Delta Distribution 437 A.2 Particle images 437 A.3 Convolution of Gaussian Image Intensity Distributions 437 A.4 Expected Value '. 438 List of Symbols 439 Index 445