The Social Construction of Technology: A Case on Mechanical Watches and the Development of Escapements

Transcription

1 Nanyang Technological University From the SelectedWorks of Edson Kieu 2013 The Social Construction of Technology: A Case on Mechanical Watches and the Development of Escapements Edson Kieu, Nanyang Technological University Available at:

2 Science, Technology and Society THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF TECHNOLOGY: A CASE ON MECHANICAL WATCHES AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF ESCAPEMENTS Kieu Li Hao, Edson 4/17/2013

3 Introduction Mechanical clocks and watches is a technology that we exceedingly take for granted in today s modern society. As with all technologies that exist today, it has its humble beginnings. In this essay we will explore the conception of a vital mechanism within watches (or clocks) known as the escapement. It is no contention that central to a watch is its ability to be accurate. Its accuracy however, is governed by a range of factors, with each part playing a vital part in the working of the watch as a whole (Proctor, 1998). Yet, the main mechanism that governs the overall accuracy of the whole mechanical system is called the escapement, which is the focus of this essay. The escapement administers the speed that the watch manoeuvres and is therefore a critical mechanism. Before the development of better escapements where accuracy was an issue, early watches had only a single hour hand, but as watches evolved with more innovations, a minute and subsequently a seconds hand was introduced (Proctor, 1998). In examining the evolution of the escapement, this essay will utilize the conceptual underpinnings of the Social Construction of Technological (SCOT) artifacts as well as the Empirical Programme of Relativism (EPOR) to review the development of the escapement within watches stretching across the 13 th century till the first half of the 19 th century. It is therefore critical to note that this essay firstly aims to look beyond technological determinism and to understand that the forms of technologies are constantly shaped and reshaped by social forces and secondly, posits that technical innovations are not one dimensional where the development of technological artifacts are neither unilinear nor paradigmatic but is multidimensional and concurrent. Three Forms of Escapements The following section will review the 3 main forms of escapement which are called the verge, cylinder and lever escapements. Page 1

4 The escapement within a mechanical watch in its early form was known as the verge. It was first used in clocks early in the 1300s and it consists of a number of features such as the crown escape wheel, a balance and a very with two flags, termed as pallets (Figure 1). Since the 14 th century till about 17 th century, the verge escapement was developed and refined, though its essentials remained and was seen as the only suitable mechanism for the regulation of watches. However, the verge escapement had a vital fault where it had rapid wear and tear which therefore made it inaccurate (Proctor, 1998). (Figure 1): Depiction of the Verge Escapment Taken from : Proctor, Tony Innovations in Time: What Can We Learn From History. Creativity and Innovation Management 7(4): Roughly in 1695, Thomas Timpion developed a cylinder escapement which was further developed by George Graham that resolved the rapid inaccuracies of the verge escapement that required frequent adjustments (Proctor, 1998). The cylinder escapement removed the fuse which was vital for the winding and release of the mainspring and replaced it with a wound chain upon a cone-shaped pinion which is the fuse (Figure 2). As a result, the advantage of the cylinder escapement was that it is more simplified where the gears operated on a single plane therefore enabling a thinner watch than would have been with a verge escapement. However, the problem with the cylinder escapement was that Page 2

5 adjustments to the positional errors of the time cannot be rectified (Proctor, 1998). Since all watches are subjected to positional errors, the cylinder escapement could therefore lose its value to tell time over long periods despite it when compared to the verge escapement (Proctor, 1998). (Figure 2): Depiction of the Cylinder Escapement. Taken from : Proctor, Tony Innovations in Time: What Can We Learn From History. Creativity and Innovation Management 7(4): The onset of mid-18 th century saw the introduction of a lever escapement by Thomas Mudge enabled watches to be far more accurate than its predecessors with lever movements placed above the balance wheel like the verge escapement and a modified lever movement imitating the cylinder movements (Proctor, 1998). The plate balance that balances the watch was removed and placed into the same plane as the escape wheel thereby compacting watch s designs (Figure 3). With newer lever escapements, watches could now be slimmer and attain accuracy beyond its predecessors. Page 3

6 (Figure 3): Depiction of the Lever Escapement. Taken from : Proctor, Tony Innovations in Time: What Can We Learn From History. Creativity and Innovation Management 7(4): Prior to the Industrial Revolutions, watches were sources of prestige and were seen as assets. However, the onset of the Industrial Revolution also made watches utilitarian and therefore led to the unanimous acceptance of the lever escapement and its future variants as the accepted standard for watches due to its accuracy and durability. The impact of the Industrial Revolution changed social and cultural climate that required strict adherence to time and the demands of a greater synchronization of industrial labour activities and hence, watches were no longer tools for prestige and assets but rather an essential and utilitarian need for reliable time-telling (Purinton, 2008). In the next section, we will review the theoretical concepts of EPOR and SCOT before applying this understanding to analyse the shifts in development the escapements. Sociological Conceptual Framework of EPOR and SCOT The Sociology of Scientific Knowledge (SSK) enabled sociologists to undertake the study of scientific knowledge that brought down the barriers between the hard sciences and that Page 4

7 of the social sciences (Sismondo, 2011). The offspring from SSK are two theoretical frameworks that will be utilized here are EPOR and SCOT. EPOR identifies 3 main stages in focusing on the empirical study of scientific developments and its relevant controversies. The first stage is termed at interpretative flexibility (Bijker et al, 1987) of scientific findings that illustrates the nature of interpretation on scientific findings that is multifaceted where the results of experiments are interpreted in different ways. As such, this notion anchors its reports of science and its application as based upon the social and not the natural world which is commonly perceived. Knowledge will thus be moulded into its shape by society based upon the consensus of social groups that interprets its problems and acceptance. The second stage relates to how the consensuses are achieved and problems eliminated through debates on evidences (Bijker et al, 1987). The third stage addresses a macro standpoint that draws influences from the wider social-cultural milieu to provide the closure mechanisms and consequently the stabilization of the scientific knowledge (Bijker 1987). As such, the underlying notion anchors that knowledge is socially constructed through the various stages of interpretation, definitions and consensus badgering between social groups. By understanding EPOR and its premise of the social construction of scientific knowledge, we can then utilize the same process in application to technology which draws us to the next theoretical framework of SCOT. SCOT aims to show that technological artifacts are a developmental process which involves selection between variations. Hence, noting that selections are made amongst variations, this will in essence adopt multi-dimensional interpretation where some variants of technology fade away while others survive and flourish hence disapproving that technological developments are linear. Page 5

8 STAGE 1: Interpretative Flexibility Relevant Social Groups Artifacts s Flexibility Interpretation of Artifacts Social Group STAGE 2: Closure Mechanisms Stabilization Rhetorical Closure Redefinition of Problem Social Group Social Group Cultural STAGE 3: Wider Context Macro Social Institutions Political Social Groups Economic * Not Exhaustive (Diagram 1): Three Stages of SCOT Page 6

9 As seen from (Diagram 1), for stage 1, we must first define the concept of relevant social groups who have the power to define what a problem is with regard to the technological artifact. One key requirement is that the members of any social groupings should have similar attached meanings to a particular artifact. To grasp the developmental process of any technological artifact it is pertinent to have a description of the social groups involved and examine the interaction between both (Bijker et al, 1987). Interpretative flexibility then refers not only to how social groups possesses agency in reflexive interpretation of artifacts but also how there is flexibility in the ways to which artifacts are designed which will be discussed in stage 2. At stage 2 (Diagram 1), is the concept of stabilization where the artifacts are constantly reworked through a long process and stabilizes through the interaction and reflexive interpretations by social groups based on defined of problems and associated solutions. As such, the notion of stability cannot be taken to be seen as stagnation but rather, the stability of the constituents or content within the artifact as agreed by social groups. This is based on rhetorical closure or by redefinition of the problem (Bijker et al, 1987). Rhetorical closure refers to how social groups perceive any problem as being solved, without the necessity that the artifact has mitigated the problem. Closure by redefinition of the problem then raises how an initial problem of the artifact can be reconstituted as a solution to another problem. At stage 3 (Diagram 1), denoting forces pertaining to the wider context where the constituents of the artifact will have to be able to relate to the larger macro socio-politicocultural context in time (Bijker et al, 1987). Noting the impacts of social groups, it is needless to say that the situation of the social groups are situated within the historical context that have its shape of norms and values which will in turn affect the meaning and formation of the artifact. Page 7

10 Adapting this multi-dimensional approach, we can therefore see the trajectories of technologies area result of the interplay of rhetorical operations made by relevant social groups that exert their interest through processes involving interpretative flexibility, defining problems and subsequently consensus whilst taking into account the wider context of society in making the selections between variants of technological artifacts that determines its constituents and shape. Application of SCOT to Case Study on Escapements STAGE 1: The evolution of the escapement was not a linear process where a new invention replaced the old. This can be seen that in Britain, the verge had remained the dominant mechanism despite the invention of the cylinder escapement. It was not until the most famous watchmaker by the name of Abraham Louis Breguet took hold of the cylinder escapement where it began to become more popular a century after its invention (Shenton, 1996). Despite this development, the verge escapement was still more popular than the cylinder in Britain than the rest of Europe. Looking at the major relevant social groups we can first identify firstly, the watchmakers and secondly the consumers. The differences between Britain and Europe was based on that fact that the English, still preferred the verge escapement where it also fetched a higher price as they continued to value watches by its larger weight and size and hence, the verge escapement was more economically valuable than the cylinder escapement whereas in Europe, watches were treated as a mobile asset and jewellery and hence, appreciated for its smaller size (Styles, 2008). Thus the consumers as a social group had shown interpretative flexibility in the way they view the type of escapement and its uses. The varying interpretations had determined the survivability of the technological artifact. Likewise watchmakers in Britain who ventured into cylinder escapements had failed to market their wares and thus saw the domination of verge watches. Page 8

11 STAGE 2: Looking at the flexibility of the artefact itself, we can see that the problem was defined as its inaccuracy. Notably there were other inventions which but had not been successful; some watchmakers attempted to use a gong to mark the hours by telling time based on auditory stimulation. However, it had not solved the problem with inaccurate time-telling and therefore failed to provide the impetus for further development. The cylinder escapement was more accurate and compact but was not accepted in Britain as the consumers had not identified the problem with verge watches related to its size. Hence, being smaller did not impact the watch industry in Britain. The acceptance of the artefact was based upon the problems defined by relevant social groups based upon the rhetorical closure that size was not the problem. Furthermore, its inaccuracies could be rectified by readjustments based on public buildings such as churches that had provided accurate time (Proctor, 1998). On the other hand, where the notion of redefining the problem is concerned is with the cylinder escapement where despite it being more accurate, it was not able to sustain the accuracy in long-run and would therefore lose its value as a timepiece. Hence, centrality to the benefits of the cylinder watch was based upon its compact size. Nonetheless, by redefining the problem, it was accepted in Europe where the watches were seen not as a utilitarian tool but rather a source of prestige and asset. As such we see the differing perceptions and attitudes as affecting the type of watches which are accepted, (Diagram 2) illustrates this. Page 9

12 Differing perceptions of problems and solutions saw acceptance of different artifacts. (Diagram 2): Social groups, Attitudes and Perceptions and Diverging Technological Artifacts. Even with the invention of the lever escapement which is more accurate as well as compact, along with the well-known limitations of the verge and cylinder mechanisms since the 1830s, it was not until the first half of the 19 th century where lever watches were embraced due to the onset of the Industrial Revolution. Despite that, the climate prior to the Industrial Revolution was that nobody had expected considerable accuracy of watches and it was not much of a problem as the watches were able to be adjusted towards the church clocks as long as the watches maintained slight deviations of a few minutes a day (Proctor, 1998). As such, the perception was that watches were in essence accurate enough for its purpose. STAGE 3: The Industrial Revolution had changed the attitudes (Diagram 2) towards time-keeping with the growth of commercial activity and introduction of railways operating on hourly accuracy had provided the impetus for a need to have accurate portable watches that did not require Page 10

13 The Social Construction of Technology: A Case Study of Mechanical Watches and its Escapements frequent adjustments. For the first time in history, labour was calculated by time, where it dictated the pace at of social and commercial activities (Purinton, 2008). Time would become secularized, as the hours from Church collective activity (community church bells that marked time) was replaced with watches held by individuals (Purinton, 2008), and thus it marked the beginning of individualization as both the private and public forms of time clashed and intersected in ways that will destabilized patterns of behaviour and social structures. Schedules of public activities became time-specific; for example, train arrivals and departures operated with precision and predictability; the mark of modernity (Purinton, 2008). This therefore brought about pressures to accept the lever mechanism and thus the death of the verge and cylinder escapements. (Diagram 3) illustrates the general timeline of the three mechanisms where in (Diagram 4) illustrates a very strong causal relationship between the modes of transport and the relative shift in the need for more accurate time- of accurate keeping and therefore the impact of the Industrial Revolution on the acceptance lever watches as vital due to corresponding changes in social milieu and perceptions. (Diagram 3): General Timeline of the Development of the Three Escapements; a Non-Linear and Concurrent Representation. Page 11

14 (Diagram 4): Relationship between Transportation and Watches: Imact of The Industrial Revolution Taken from : Proctor, Tony Innovations in Time: What Can We Learn From History. Creativity and Innovation Management 7(4): Conclusion Throughout this essay we have reviewed two main conceptual frameworks which are EPOR that have brought about its application for SCOT in reviewing technological artifacts. From the empirical case study of escapements, it is therefore shown that social construction of technologies are based upon the interaction of social groups and its closure mechanisms that determined the shape of technologies. In addition to that, we cannot merely review the micro-level interactions but also the importance to examine the macro-social forces that will shape social groups and their attitudes. As such, technologies are not unilinear as the ongoing interaction between social groups will determine the survival and eradication of technologies and hence a more multidimensional view of technology is therefore a more accurate model of analysis. Page 12

15 Bibliography Bijker, Wiebe E.. T. P. H. T. S. P The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology. 1 st ed. Cambridge, Massachussets, London, England: The MIT Press. Proctor, Tony Innovations in Time: What Can We Learn From History. Creativity and Innovation Management 7(4): Purinton, Marjean Watches and Watching Time in British Romantic Comedy. Wordsworth Circle 39(1-2). Shenton, A Pocket Watches 19th and 20th Centuries. Woodbridge, Suffolk: The Antique Collectors' Club. Sismondo, Sergio An Introduction to Science and Technology. 1 st ed. United Kingdom: Wiley Blackwell. Styles, John Time Piece: Working Men and Watches. Today 58(1). Word Count: 2498 Words - END - Page 13