Getting ideas: watching the sketching and modelling processes of year 8 and year 9 learners in technology education classes

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1 Getting ideas: watching the sketching and modelling processes of year 8 and year 9 learners in technology education classes Tim Barnard Arthur Cotton Design and Technology Centre, Rhodes University, South Africa t.barnard@sacschool.com This descriptive study investigates how children in year 8 and year 9 use sketching, drawing and 3- dimesional sketch modelling with reference to the effect of teaching drawing skills and how prolonged exposure to Technology education classes may change the way in which these are used. The relative effect of a drawing course on year 8 children s inclination to mimic either their sketches or their models was examined using questions regarding the degree of similarity between their final outcomes and the 2-dimensional and 3-dimensional sketching/modelling forms. The same questions were used in relation to the order of tasks (sketch-model-make vs model-sketch-make) to determine if that order had an impact on how the children viewed their modelling process. Year 9 children gave preference to sketching over modelling for ideation. This preference seems to be independent of drawing skills. The ease with which children move between sketching and modelling and the final making process seems to be independent of the individual s material handling skills. Observations of individual preference for sketching or modelling are compared to the results of a test for creative fluency, flexibility and originality are made and discussed. Introduction The purpose of this study was to investigate change in learner behaviour with regard to sketching and modelling in the design process as they became more experienced, with particular interest in whether this was related to the degree of creativity displayed. This reportage of observations relates to underlying research questions regarding how children operate as novice and more experienced designers and the balance between visualisation and actualisation in the design process. A growing body of work examines how children use drawing in design. Teachers require children to draw their ideas before they make anything. Drawing techniques are taught, and communication through graphic means is included in Technology education programmes. In this study the term sketching means graphic exercises to gather and record ideas. This is distinct from hardline drawing for which techniques are frequently taught in Technology education courses, in that the primary function of sketching is ideation and 2-dimensional modelling of ideas, and the function of hardline drawings is primarily communication of complete ideas. Welch and Lim (1999) described how children in year 7 skipped sketching stages when gathering ideas, and moved directly on to making. Drawing was not used to gather nor communicate nor iterate ideas. Children did not propose multiple solutions and were described as deficient in skills required to communicate or ideate through drawing. This is despite that in the professional design realm, sketching is given as being central to individuals successes (Archer 1979). Tipping (1983) identified sketching as a fundamental part of the language of design in Technology Education programmes. Welch and Lim (1999) found that teaching of sketching techniques had no impact on the way year 7 children designed. Welch., Barlex and Lim (2000), in an expansion of the work of Welch and Lim (1999) found that the context of the design problem and how young designers engage with it have more influence in ideation, than sketching. They emphasised experiencing the problem through talk and to a lesser extent visualisation, before children gathered ideas. 184

2 In observations of year 6 children MacDonald and Gustafson (2004) suggest that there is a need for a balance between drawing as representation (found most commonly), and drawing as ideation (found in more successful design strategies). They suggest mimicking professional design practice may prepare children for real world interactions. Hope (2000), suggested the strategy of draw one and make it is self-defeating, as it reinforces the idea of a drawing as a separate product. Hope supports the idea that sketches can be viewed as models to explore ideas, and that children need help to visualise a complete solution. She suggests they are unaware of the limits to their visualisation skills, and frequently begin making before they have a complete idea. She suggests better success could be assured by helping children to objectify and record their mental images. The analogous relationship between a medium for design and the medium for making requires that children understand both media and can visualise the making process. There is strong pressure to start making amongst young children, and this frequently rushes the early stages of designing. Smith (2001) concluded that sketching allowed for ambiguous interpretation, and hence a broader range of interpretations. He stated, that despite initial reluctance amongst year 9, 10 children and undergraduate students to use modelling, they found it beneficial, particularly in the iteration of design ideas. This reflects practice in design professions, where interaction of 2-dimensional and 3- dimensional modelling is used in final design proposals. Smith suggested that solids modelling computer packages and virtual reality may become useful tools in speeding up model formation, and also the realisation of models into prototypes and products. Smith, Brochocka and Baynes (2001) found that current practice seldom included modelling in year 9 children, Smith, Brochocka and Baynes (2001). Children were required to use both 2- and 3- dimensional sketch modelling a number of times in a design and make task. This strategy worked well to generate both original and well-made products. They found children s attitudes to sketching as a 2- dimensional modelling tool depended on the drawing skills. This work makes a plea for the importance of ambiguity in 2-and 3-dimensional sketch modelling to be explained to children as the uncertainty it causes is the source of many new ideas. In this study, the effect of an intervention to teach specific drawing skills on two design and make exercises, undertaken by two year 8 classes is examined, with particular reference to how children in these classes used and perceived sketching and 3-dimensional sketch modelling. In the second of the design and make exercises, one class modelled before they sketched, and the other sketched before they modelled. A second investigation, of the processes used by two classes of year 9 children in the early design stages of a design and make task allows us to make comparisons of pupil attitudes toward sketching and designing after more exposure to 2- and 3-dimensional sketch modelling. Comparisons are made between the attitude and practice of groups of pupils regarded as showing higher or lower creative fluency, flexibility and originality. Method This work is based on observations made in class as part of normal teaching activities by the teacher. This was selected as the research method as no statistical analyses were planned (data set too limited), the study must be viewed as deliberately and explicitly subjective, and as learner s time involvement was highly constrained, preventing more substantial interaction with learners. In these investigations, one teacher taught all the lessons, supervised drawing and workshop sessions, prepared, delivered and analysed the answers and conducted all of the interviews. As far as possible the same routine was followed with each replicate class. 185

3 Year 8 study Two year eight classes were observed during two design and make projects. The first design and make project required groups (3) to use newspaper and masking tape to build a device to drop w a raw hen s egg from a height of 4m. Pupils were encouraged to draw three ideas, share them with their group members and make a number of prototypes which were tested before a final device was made and tested. This was followed by three hours of drawing tuition and practice. The second design and make project involved structures and had included, as focussed practical tasks, the making of joints in the wood that would be used in the structure, making load bearing paper structures and investigation of forces in structures using the deformation of drinking straw squares and triangles. The children were required to work in the same groups of three to suspend as large a load as possible from a point 300mm above and 300mm away from a workbench. One class were required to model first, and then sketch ideas before sharing them with their groups, whilst the other class were required to sketch first and then make models, before moving on to the making stages of the project. Observations were made of classroom and workshop action and by analysis of questionnaires completed by all children in these classes for each of these activities (table 1). Table 1. Questions used in year 8 investigation. In the egg drop project you were asked to sketch and to try out your ideas by dropping a wooden egg or other object using the materials you would use for the final test (modelling). Which did you think gave you more different ideas? Sketching Modelling Which gave you the better ideas? Sketching Modelling When you worked with other group members, which was more helpful in choosing your final design? When you made your design, which was more useful for explaining your idea to other people? How much do you think your final device was different to your first sketches? How much do you think your final device was different to the trial model that you made? Sketching Sketching A little A little Modelling Modelling A lot A lot Notes were made of interactions within groups and of how drawings and models were used. Data gathered from the questionnaires were converted into percentage of responses across both classes, (n=28 and n=17) for the egg-drop project and separately for the structures project, as a different order of procedures was used in each class. Data for the last two questions were compared between the two exercises for both classes combined. However, when comparing responses of classes in the structures project by class, as they had followed different procedures, it became important to separate these data. The relative effect of the drawing course on children s inclination to mimic either their sketches or their models was examined using questions regarding the degree of similarity between their final outcomes and the 2-dimensional and 3-dimensional sketching/modelling forms (table 1). The same questions were used in relation to the order of tasks (sketch-model-make vs model-sketch-make) to determine if that order had an impact on how the children viewed their modelling process. Year 9 study Year 9 children were engaged with a task in which they were to make a final product prototype of either a mass storage device, or a palm-top computer, or a free condom vending system. This project had been preceded by a drawing course involving rendering, isometric and orthographic drawing techniques, and included modified versions of Torrance s 2- and 3-dimensional creativity tests (Torrance 1994). Following the 2- and 3-dimensional creativity exercises, children were encouraged 186

4 to follow their own process to complete the project, but were warned that a full set of orthographic drawings and a rendered drawing of the device had to be submitted on completion of the project. Time was allocated for the class to draw design ideas, but the drawings were not submitted or used except in dialogue between children and in conversations between a child and the teacher. Children were encouraged to begin making their product prototype as soon as they felt they knew what they wanted to do. Modified versions of Torrance s (1994) 2- and 3-dimensional creativity tests were used to segregate pupils into groups of higher or lower creative fluency, flexibility and originality. Ten pupils (five from each of the higher or lower groups of higher or lower creative fluency, flexibility and originality) were interviewed from one class. The intention had been to interview ten pupils on that basis from each class, but an individual who had been placed within the group showing lower creative fluency, flexibility and originality had shown an unusual and highly innovative approach to communicating his idea to a teaching assistant, so six of the lower and five of the higher creative fluency, flexibility and originality groups were interviewed. Whilst that particular child s use of his body to convey his idea was clearly unusual, the data from his interview were included, as they remained valid, within the context of the assessment of levels of creative fluency, flexibility and originality. Children were asked how they would get one good idea for a product, how they would get good ideas for five of the same product, whether they were using a drawing while making their product prototype, what they used drawings for, for self-assessments of their drawing skills, and levels of creative fluency, flexibility and originality in 2-dimensional and 3-dimesional exercises. Answers were recorded, characterised and expressed as real numbers answers prompted in the interview. Results Year 8 study Table two shows the percentage response to each question for both classes for the egg-drop project (prior to the drawing course) and for each class separately for the structures project (after the drawing course). Classes did not follow the same order of action in the structures project. I believe that, without using quantitative statistical analysis, that the descriptive data contained in table two are sufficient to allow that 3-dimesional modelling is the preferred mode, of getting the best idea, of selecting ideas and for communicating the ideas, regardless of whether drawing skills had been developed and of their levels of confidence in their ability to draw what they saw in their mind s eye. Prior to the drawing course, children indicated a slight preference for sketching as a mode of generating a number of ideas. Following the drawing course, both classes indicated they preferred modelling to sketching to generate a number of ideas. It is also notable that the class who modelled, then sketched before making their structure showed no preference for modelling or sketching as a means selecting the best design. This is in contrast with the other class who sketched before modelling in their structures project. The order of 2-or 3-dimensional modelling seems to play a role here, reducing the perceived value of 2-dimensional modelling if preceded by a 3-dimensional modelling stage, even if the 3-dimensional models were not closely adhered in the final product. Much can be said for the attraction children feel for the first complete idea. Table 2. Percentage response for preference for sketching or modelling for four purposes within the design process. Egg-drop-before drawing course n=45 drawing course, n=28, sketch-model-make drawing course, n=17, model-sketch-make Sketching Modelling Sketching Modelling Sketching Modelling Which did you think gave you more different ideas?

5 Which gave you the better ideas? When you worked with other group members, which was more helpful in choosing your final design? When you made your design, which was more useful for explaining your idea to other people? Table 3. Percentage response for degree of similarity between sketches and models and the final product. Egg-drop- before drawing course n=45 drawing course, n=28, sketch-modelmake drawing course, n=17, model-sketchmake How much do you think your final device was different to your first sketches? How much do you think your final device was different to the trial model that you made? A little A lot A little A lot A little A lot The data in table three do not support the idea that actively teaching drawing skills will improve the extent to which children s design drawings represents the product. Children were more prepared to be at variance with their model following the drawing course, but this is not independent their experience as designers. The data support the idea that children view drawing as a product and not part of a process, despite improved skills and confidence in drawing. The process appears to have been: ideas were finalised using 3-dimensional modelling and some drawings were also made. A greater proportion of children reported that their model and final product varied only a little, even in the group who sketched first, which points to a perceived lesser value of sketching. Year 9 study Observations of year 9 children sketching and modelling (both unrelated to their final product) showed several interesting trends. The data are based on a smaller number of observations than is ideal, so caution is necessary. Table four shows children s response to questions regarding a number of uses of drawings and 3-dimensional modelling, and self assessments of their drawing ability, and creative fluency, flexibility and originality. There was no difference between the response from the two classes, so individuals with higher or lower levels of creative fluency, flexibility and originality were combined. Total numbers are also given. Table 4. Numbers of responses from groups of children judged to be at higher or lower levels of creative fluency, flexibility and originality. Question Prompted response Higher creative Lower creative fluency, All 188

6 fluency, flexibility and originality flexibility and originality Have you been using your drawing while Yes making your product prototype? No How do you regard your ability to draw the High ideas you are working from Low If I were to ask you to make one product Sketch prototype of an original product, would you Model sketch or model as a way to get ideas? If I were to ask you to make five original Sketch product prototypes for the same product, would Model you sketch or model as a way to get ideas? How do you see you ability to create new ideas High by using sketching? Low How do you see you ability to create new ideas High by using modelling? Low Children who I had assessed as showing lower levels of creative fluency, flexibility and originality viewed their drawing skills as being deficient, whilst the majority of the more creative group regarded their drawing skills as being better than they needed to be. Observations of the children s drawings do not show such a dramatic difference between the drawing ability of the children in these groups, despite the bias the type of creativity testing I used placing those with genuinely better skills in a better position to be regarded as being more creative. Most children in the group characterised as having lower levels of creative fluency, flexibility and originality had exceeded my expectations of their drawing skills. I believe that these children s perception of both their ability to be creative and their ability to draw are significantly affected by lower levels of confidence. There was no appreciable difference in the way that children viewed sketching or 3-dimensional modelling as being more or less useful according to whether they were regarded as having higher or lower levels of creative fluency, flexibility and originality. In contrast to the work conducted with year 8 children, these data show a belief that sketching is a better mode to get one really good idea, and that sketching is better as a way to get many ideas- and this is independent of whether the children believe they have adequate or inadequate drawing skills. Drawings were not used by a large majority of children when making their prototypes. I divided responses to questions about use of drawings into three types: those that made reference to getting, fixing ideas or checking ideas for originality (11/21), to the procedures of making (7/21), and to drawing as a way to communicate (3/21). When asked about making five original product prototypes for the same product, three methods were suggested: sketch many and make five (12/21), sketch one and make one x5 (8/21), and make 5 without any sketching (1/21). Discussion Initially and even after a specifically focussed attempt to teach children to draw, the majority of year 8 children preferred to model, either with analogous materials in a 3-dimensional simulation, or with the real materials. This preference seems to be independent of drawing skills. Drawing was seen as making a separate product and not a part of the design process by novice designers. Year 9 children, more experienced in problem solving and who had completed the design process more times, used sketching as 2-dimensional modelling. The production of hard line drawings, dimensions and production plans were not viewed as part of the design process. The emergence of problem solving strategies that included elements of material experimentation and adaptation of drawn 189

7 ideas is in conflict with the impulse of less-experienced children who are determined to make the first complete idea. The ease with which children move between sketching and 3-dimensional modelling and the final making process seems to be independent of the individual s material handling skills. It seems that, although sketching and 3-dimensional modelling is key in the process of professional designers (as described by Barlex and Lim 2001), it is only in the 8 th and 9 th year of formal education that these skills are demonstrated. Improved confidence and ability in drawing makes no difference to how learners use sketches and 3- dimensional models to generate ideas, although, with increased experience, these skills improve how ideas area iterated. Rapid modelling, either using easily worked analogous materials or through computer simulation may provide opportunities to see a first complete idea as a beginning point, rather than as an end-point. Separation of 3-dimensional modelling and making processes and a return to sketching may well improve the nature of the final product. This is not a matter of improved material knowledge and handling skills, but also a real chance for the child s understanding of the problem to become complete before ideation begins. If a child returns to make an exact replica of their 3-dimesnioal model, then it may become important to interrogate the originality of the concept. If original, then the idea will not have been improved by the process at all, and the child will be justified in declaring the process a waste of time. However, experience suggests that children pursuing their first complete idea (an overwhelming impulse) seldom show high levels of originality. By forcing ideation into a place beyond the first encounter with a 3-dimensional artefact, we allow the problem to be properly understood, sketching to be used as a tool for ideation and iteration, and drawing to be used as a means to an end, rather than an end in itself. References Archer, B. (1979). The Three Rs. Design Studies 1(1), Hope, G. (2000). Beyond Draw One and Make it - developing better strategies for the use of drawing in Key Stages 1 and 2. Design and technology International Millennium Conference MacDonald, D. and Gustafson, B. (2004). The roles of design drawing among children engaged in a parachute building activity. Journal of Technology Education. 16(1), Smith, J. (2001). The current and future role of modeling in design and technology. Journal of Design and Technology Education. 6(1), Smith, J., Brochocka, K., and Baynes, K. (2001). A pilot study into the value of 3D sketch modeling at Key Stage 3. Journal of Design and Technology Education. 6(2), Tipping, C. (1983). Acquiring design skills for teaching- a self-help suggestion. Studies in design education, craft and technology. 16(1), Welch, M. and Lim, H.S. (1999). Teaching sketching and its effect on the solutions produced by novice designers. Idater Welch, M., Barlex, D. and Lim, H.S. (2000). Sketching: friend or foe of the novice designer? International Journal of Design and Technology Education. 10,