Chapter -4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Transcription

1 Chapter -4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS The samples of partial, smudged or fragmentary fingerprints along with complete fingerprints on different types of papers from 100 individuals were taken with three types of ink (Kores, Sirchie and stamp pad) and photomicrographs were prepared to study the Edges and Pores characteristics besides the ridge characteristics, with a Motic 400 camera attached to the stereomicroscope which facilitated recording of the enlarged fingerprint images. After magnification, the samples were analyzed with usual method i.e. by studying pattern types (First Level Detail) and finding identical ridge characteristics (Galton s details/minutiae) at their correlative positions. But where sufficient number of ridge details was not available, particularly in cases of fragmentary or partial fingerprints, Edgeoscopy and Poroscopy was applied. The following observations related to the effects of different types of papers on the impressions are made Spreading of Ink: Ordinary Paper A: In this type of paper it was observed that the spreading of ink was more as compared to executive bond paper and glaze paper may be due to the loose-fitting of fibers (Lower Density of fibers). Executive bond paper: It was observed that the spreading of ink was less in comparison to the ordinary paper (A) which may be due to higher density of fibers in paper. Glaze paper: No spreading of ink was observed in this type of paper Stability of the prints: The stability of the prints on different types of papers was observed as follows:- Ordinary paper A: The prints taken on this paper were stable due to the rough surface (Lower density of fibers) of the paper as it can easily absorb ink applied on it. Executive bond paper: The stability of the prints on this type of paper was better in comparison to the ordinary paper due to the better quality of this paper (higher density) than ordinary paper. Glaze paper: It was observed that the stability of the prints was less as compared to the ordinary paper and executive bond paper due to the glazy surface of the paper.

2 Effect of different types of ink (printer ink and stamp pad ink) on the impressions: More detailed information was observed in the prints taken with Printer ink (Kores and Sirchie) than the stamp pad ink and it provides more points for comparison under identical situations. Prints obtained with Sirchie ink were still better then Kores printers ink particularly when third level details are required. In some of the prints pattern of the stamp pad net was also observed which affected the clarity of the prints. Variations in the Edge characteristics:- There are some degree of variations in the appearance of third level details in the fingerprints taken on ordinary, executive bond and glaze paper. These variations were clearly visible in photomicrographs, which may have occurred due to any one or combination of the following reasons: Pressure applied Less or excessive amount of ink used Some foreign materials Surface debris on the finger Irregular surface In the present study, the photomicrograph of Fragmented finger print was prepared and then the number, size, shape and relative positions of sweat pores per photomicrographs were studied in all the samples. The results of these parameters are given as follows: 1. Number of pores: It was observed that the number of pores present in the photomicrograph ranged from 5-8 and average per photomicrograph is 6 (Table-2). 2. Size of pores: In the present study, the size of pores was classified as small, medium and large, but was not given much importance as their size varies with the above said factors particularly pressure and amount of ink used. 3. Shape of pores: In the present study the Pores of different shapes have been found to be present (Table-II, Photomicrograph-1-9) on the ridges such as:- Rounded Rectangular Squarish Pentagonal

3 Table-II Showing Average Number and Range of Second and Third Level Characteristics per Photomicrographs (40X) in 100 fragmented Finger Prints S.No. Description of Characteristics Average number Per Photomicrograph Range Per Photomicrograph 1 Second Level Details Straight Convex Concave Angle Peak Table Pocket No. of Pores SIZE OF THE PORES a Small b Medium c Large SHAPE OF THE PORE a Rounded b Triangular c Elliptical or oval d Rectangular e Rhomboid f Squarish g Pentagonal Location of Pores Medial Peripheral

4 Elliptical or oval Triangular Rhomboid 4. Position of the pores on the ridge: In the present study the pores on the ridge may either be situated in the centre or towards the periphery of the ridge. The pores which were lying in the middle of the ridge are named closed pores while those on the periphery were called open pores (Locard, 1912). Comparison of Finger Prints All the photomicrographs of Complete, partial, fragmented or smudged finger prints were examined inter-see for first, second and third level details. In complete and partial finger prints the first level details were present. So all of them were compared with the help of First and Second level details. But in case of fragmentary or smudged finger prints only few ridges were available in all the photomicrographs. Attempt has been made to compare these ridges on the basis of second and third level details. First level details include patterns, which was not available in all the photomicrographs taken from fragmentary and smudged finger prints. Second level details include ridge characteristics (Galton Details) a few of them were available and are shown in the photomicrographs-8. Third level details include pores (Poroscopy) and edges of the ridges (Edgeoscopy) which was available in sufficient number to complete the comparison process (photomicrographs-8) Two representative cases (as mentioned above), details of case-i (Table-III) is discussed in details as follows and other has been attached with Appendix-1 to demonstrate the procedure adopted for comparison of smudged and fragmented finger prints in which very few ridge characteristics were present. The details/description about every photomicrograph has been given below each photomicrograph X1-X24 in both the cases. The photomicrographs X1-X12 (without measurements of distances between Third Level Details) and X13-X24 (with measurements of distances between Third Level Details) of Representative Case-1 taken on different papers were compared with each other by Locating the

5 Table-III Showing Second and Third Level Details Marked in Photomicrographs-X1-X12 of Case-I S.No. Point Number given to the Second/Third Level Description of Second/Third Level Details Details 1 R1 Downward Bifurcation (Second Level) 2 R2 Ridge Ending (Second Level) 3 1 Oval Medial Pore (Third Level) 4 2 Peripheral Rectangular Pore(Third Level) 5 3 Rhomboid Medial Pore (Third Level) 6 4 Oval Pore (Third Level) 7 5 Round Pore (Third Level) 8 6 Table Edge (Third Level) 9 7 Pentagonal Medial Pore (Third Level) 10 8 Squarish Peripheral Pore (Third Level) 11 9 Squarish Peripheral Pore (Third Level) Squarish Pore (Third Level) Peak Edge (Third Level) Table Edge (Third Level) Pentagonal Pore (Third Level) Angle Edge (Third Level)

6 Photomicrograph-X1 The Photomicrograph of complete fingerprint taken with Sirchie ink at 40x Magnification on ordinary paper Photomicrograph-X2 The Photomicrograph of partial fingerprint taken with Sirchie ink at 40x Magnification on ordinary paper

7 Photomicrograph-X3 The Photomicrograph of fragmentary fingerprint taken with Sirchie ink at 40x Magnification on ordinary paper Photomicrograph-X4 The Photomicrograph of smudged fingerprint taken with Sirchie ink at 40x Magnification on ordinary paper

8 Photomicrograph-X5 The Photomicrograph of complete fingerprint taken with Sirchie ink at 40x Magnification on Executive Bond paper Photomicrograph-X6 The Photomicrograph of partial fingerprint taken with Sirchie ink at 40x Magnification on Executive Bond paper

9 Photomicrograph-X7 The Photomicrograph of fragmentary fingerprint taken with Sirchie ink at 40x Magnification on Executive Bond paper Photomicrograph-X8 The Photomicrograph of smudged fingerprint taken with Sirchie ink at 40x Magnification on Executive Bond paper

10 Photomicrograph-X9 The Photomicrograph of complete fingerprint taken with Sirchie ink at 40x Magnification on Glazed paper The photomicrograph-x10 The Photomicrograph of partial fingerprint taken with Sirchie ink at 40x Magnification on Glazed paper

11 Photomicrograph-X11 The Photomicrograph of fragmentary fingerprint taken with Sirchie ink at 40x Magnification on Glazed paper Photomicrograph-X12 The Photomicrograph of smudged fingerprint taken with Sirchie ink at 40x Magnification on Glazed paper

12 same area (present in the fragmented finger print) in all the complete, partial and Fragmented or smudged Finger Prints. Then the Second and third level details were marked at their correlated position (Table-III) as follows: Point number R1 is a Downward Bifurcation (Second Level Detail) which is present in all the photomicrographs (X1-X24) and has been fixed as reference point. Immediately below the reference point R1 in the lower ridge there is a point number R2 which is a ridge ending (Second Level Detail) present in all the photomicrographs (X1- X24). In the next lower ridge is a point number 1, which is an oval sweat pore (Third Level Detail) present in all the photographs except X12 and X24. On the ridge next to point number 1, there is an open peripheral rectangular pore (Third Level) and is marked as point number 2. It is present in all the photomicrographs except photomicrograph-x2, but is closed in photomicrograph-x4. Rhomboid Medial Pore (Third Level) which has been marked as point number 3 is located just one ridge above towards left of the point number-1. It is present in all the photomicrographs except photomicrograph-x12 & X24. Immediately right of point number 3 on the same ridge present elliptical Pore (Third Level) marked as point number-4 present in all the photomicrographs. Point number 5 Rounded Pore (Third Level) is located very close to the left of point number R2 (Ridge ending) and is present in all the photomicrographs except photomicrograph- X12 & X24. Point number 6 Table Edge (Edgeoscopy, Third Level) is located just one ridge above the point number 3 and is towards the left of the bifurcation point number R1, is clearly visible in all the photomicrographs except photomicrographs- X1, X2, X4, X12 & X24. Pentagonal Medial Pore (Third Level) which has been marked as point number 7 is medially placed on the ridge and is pentagonal in shape. It is located between point number 6 and R1 on the same ridge and is present in all the photomicrographs except photomicrograph- X12 & X24.. Two sweat pores which are square and Peripheral (Third Level) marked as point number 8 and 9 are located towards the right of the lower arm of the downward bifurcation R1

13 and is present in all the photomicrographs except X12 & X24.. Point number 9 is away from point number 8 on the same ridge. Another Squarish Pore (Third Level) marked point number 10 is located at the upper arm of the downward bifurcation R1 (reference point) and is present in all the photomicrographs except X12 & X24.. Point number 11 is a peak edge (Third Level) which is also situated at the upper arm of the downward bifurcation R1 (reference point) and away towards right of the point number 10. Point number 11 is present in all the photomicrographs except X12 & X24. Point number 12 which is a table edge (Third Level, Edgeoscopy) is situated at the next upper ridge of reference point R1 or it is just above the point number 10 and 11. Point number 12 is present in all the photomicrographs except X8. X9, X11, X12 & X24. Point number 13 Pentagonal Pore (Third Level, Poroscopy) is located on a ridge left of point number 6 or the ridge which is bifurcating moving little towards right is visible in all the photomicrographs except X1, X3, X8, X9, X12 & X24. Angle Edge (Third Level) marked as point number 14 is present on the ridge below the bifurcating ridge and is just between point number 4 and 5 on the upper edge of the ridge. It is present in all the photomicrographs except X12 & X24. In all the 12 photomicrographs the 14 points of second and third level details were found in their correlated position. Hence a positive conclusions up to certain extent can be made, despite having only three ridges, which is having no first level detail, only two second level characteristics and remaining all are based on third level details In the Present Study a further attempt has been made to improve the earlier methodology of comparison of fragmented fingerprints (which has very few ridges and limited points of similarity) and the final outcome by measuring the relative distances between the Third level characteristics. Graphical simulation and analysis techniques have become so advanced that we cannot doubt their accuracy. The third level details including Pores and Edges of the Ridges were again marked using graphical software (Photomicrograph X13-X24) and these markings were objectively analyzed by measuring their relative distances. The other third level details including Angle, the relative distances were also measured and the data generated was statistical analyzed. Hypothesis testing procedures were used to substantiate the results and inferences drawn.

14 The characteristics were measured in the following photomicrographs: Photomicrograph-X13 The Photomicrograph of complete fingerprint taken with Sirchie ink at 40x Magnification on ordinary paper Photomicrograph-X14 The Photomicrograph of partial fingerprint taken with Sirchie ink at 40x Magnification on ordinary paper

15 Photomicrograph-X15 The Photomicrograph of fragmentary fingerprint taken with Sirchie ink at 40x Magnification on ordinary paper Photomicrograph-X16 The Photomicrograph of smudged fingerprint taken with Sirchie ink at 40x Magnification on ordinary paper

16 Photomicrograph-X17 The Photomicrograph of complete fingerprint taken with Sirchie ink at 40x Magnification on Executive Bond paper Photomicrograph-X18 The Photomicrograph of partial fingerprint taken with Sirchie ink at 40x Magnification on Executive Bond paper

17 Photomicrograph-X19 The Photomicrograph of fragmentary fingerprint taken with Sirchie ink at 40x Magnification on Executive Bond paper Photomicrograph-X20 The Photomicrograph of smudged fingerprint taken with Sirchie ink at 40x Magnification on Executive Bond paper

18 Photomicrograph-X21 The Photomicrograph of complete fingerprint taken with Sirchie ink at 40x Magnification on Glazed paper The photomicrograph-x22 The Photomicrograph of partial fingerprint taken with Sirchie ink at 40x Magnification on Glazed paper

19 Photomicrograph-X23 The Photomicrograph of fragmentary fingerprint taken with Sirchie ink at 40x Magnification on Glazed paper Photomicrograph-X24 The Photomicrograph of smudged fingerprint taken with Sirchie ink at 40x Magnification on Glazed paper

20 Statistical Interpretation The four statistical tests namely One Way ANOVA, Levene s test, Brown-forsythe s Test, Bartlett s Test were applied to interpret the data and to check its significance. The hypothesis was formulated according to which the Null Hypothesis (H 0 ) asserts that the variances are identical (that means the photomicrographs are taken from same sample and in the same area ) so that the alternative hypothesis (H A ) will imply that at least one of the variances is different from another (or the photomicrographs are taken from different fingerprints and/or different area of the same fingerprint) TABLE 1V Showing Inter Distances between Various Third Level Details in Photomicrographs X13 X14 X15 X16 X17 X18 X19 X20 X21 X22 X23 d NA NA d d d4 NA 56.6 NA NA NA NA d5 NA NA NA d d d d d NA NA NA a NA-Not Available In table-iv, X13 X23 represent the photomicrographs in which the second and third level details are marked but in X24 photomicrograph Third Level Details are not visible. Distances between Third Levels Details were marked as d1 d10 in all the photomicrographs X13 X23. Angle marked as a1 is measured on the edge of the ridge and is present in photomicrographs X13 X23. Statistical Tests One way ANOVA: The ANOVA (Analysis of Variances) tests the Null hypothesis that samples in two or more groups are drawn from the same population. To do this, two estimates are made of the population variance. These estimates rely on various assumptions (see below). The ANOVA produces an F statistic, the ratio of the variance calculated among the means to the variance within the samples. If the group means are drawn from the same population, the variance between the group means should be lower than the variance of the samples, following

21 the central limit theorem. A higher ratio therefore implies that the samples were drawn from different populations. The tests were conducted by using Microsoft s EXCEL and Addinsoft s XLSTAT statistical package to run within MS EXCEL. One way ANOVA tests the null that samples in two or more groups have been drawn from the same population The variances between the group means should be lower than the variance of the samples. If the F value is lower than the F critical. We can infer that the variance / variations in the data are insignificant. In other words the photomicrographs X1 - X12 are identical and are taken from the same individual. Table-V One Way ANOVA Anova: Single Factor SUMMARY Groups Count Sum Average Variance X X X X X X X X X X X Analysis of Variances Source of Variation SS Df MS F calculated P-value F crit Between Groups Within Groups Total

22 Test interpretation: Since the value of F (calculated) is less than the tabulated value of F (i.e. F crit at p=0.8691) it can be safely inferred that the variances are identical. Variable Observation Obs. with missing data Table-VI Normalized Table Obs. without missing data Minimum Maximum Mean Std. deviation X X X X X X X X X X X The Table VI has been prepared with the help of table-iv by making number of observations equal i.e. 10 in this case. The missing values as indicated by NA have been substituted with the mean value for that particular variable and then standard deviation has been calculated. This process is called normalization of data. Levene s Test: In statistics, Levene's test is an inferential statistic used to assess the equality of variances in different samples. Some common statistical procedures assume that variances of the populations from which different samples are drawn are equal. Levene's test assesses this assumption. It tests the null hypothesis that the population variances are equal (called homogeneity of variance). If the resulting p-value of Levene's test is less than some critical value (typically 0.05), the obtained differences in sample variances are unlikely to have occurred based on random sampling. Thus, the null hypothesis of equal variances is

23 rejected and it is concluded that there is a difference between the variances in the population. This is another test which assesses the assumption that variances of populations from which different samples are drawn is equal. If the resulting P value of levene s is less than some critical value of P. We can infer that the differences obtained in sample variances are unlikely to have occurred based on random sampling. We can reject the null hypotheses of equal variances and can conclude that there is a difference between the variances in the population. Or we can say that the photomicrographs are not identical i.e. they have been taken from different individuals. Table-VII Levene's test Levene's test (Mean) / Two-tailed test F (Observed value) F (Critical value) DF1 10 DF2 86 p-value (one-tailed) alpha 0.05 Test interpretation: H 0 : The variances are identical. H a : At least one of the variances is different from another. As the computed p-value is greater than the significance level alpha=0.05, one cannot reject the null hypothesis H 0. In the present analysis the observed P value is greater than the P critical. So we can not reject the null hypothesis and conclude that the photomicrographs are of the same individual. Brown Forsythe s Test: The Brown and Forsyth test statistic is the F statistic resulting from an ordinary one-way analysis of variance on the absolute deviations from the median. the definition based on

24 the median is recommended as the choice that provides good robustness against many types of non-normal data while retaining good statistical power. It is similar to Levene s test the main difference is that the Levene s test uses mean while this test uses median as the basis. If the P observed is more than P critical we cannot reject null hypothesis. Since the null hypothesis is not rejected so the observed variances are not significant. Table-VIII Brown Forsythe s Test Brown Forsythe s (Median) / Two-tailed test: F (Observed value) F (Critical value) DF1 10 DF2 86 p-value (one-tailed) alpha 0.05 Test interpretation: H 0 : The variances are identical. H a : At least one of the variances is different from another. As the computed p-value is greater than the significance level alpha=0.05, one cannot reject the null hypothesis H 0. The photomicrographs are of the same individual. Bartlett s Test: In statistics, Bartlett's test (Snedecor and Cochran, 1983) is used to test if samples are from populations with equal variances. Equal variances across samples is homogeneity of variances. Some statistical tests, for example the analysis of variance, assume that variances are equal across groups or samples. The Bartlett test can be used to verify that assumption. Bartlett's test is sensitive to departures from normality. That is, if the samples come from non-normal distributions, then Bartlett's test may simply be testing for non-normality.

25 The Levene test and Brown Forsythe test are alternatives to the Bartlett test that are less sensitive to departures from normality. It is used to test if case samples are from populations with equal variances. This test is sensitive to departures from normalcy i.e. if a population is not normally distributed the Bartlett s test will simply test for non normalcy. The other tests such as Levene s or Brown Forsythe s are not sensitive enough to the departures from normalcy. So they are somewhat less accurate than this test. Since P observed is greater than P critical, we cannot reject the null hypothesis. The variances are not significant so the data is taken same population. Table-IX Bartlett s test Bartlett's test / Two-tailed test Chi-square (Observed value) Chi-square (Critical value) DF 10 p-value (one-tailed) alpha 0.05 Test interpretation: H 0 : The variances are identical. H a : At least one of the variances is different from another. As the computed p-value is greater than the significance level alpha=0.05, one cannot reject the null hypothesis H 0. The various samples are identical, which infer that the photomicrographs of finger prints are of the same person. A blind trail was organized in smudged prints with few clear (2 to 3) ridges were given to trace and identify from a series of prints unknown to the author based on the second and third level characteristics. Initial elimination was done on the basis of 1st & 2nd level details without encountering much of problem (gather very easily. After initial elimination the remaining prints were meticulously

26 examined for the third level characteristics in their co-relative positions in the questioned and specimen prints. All the prints were (could be) correctly identified. Thus, it can be seen that third level characteristics can help to compensate for the lack of Galton details /minute. In prints where enough number of ridges are not available for comparison for establishing positive identity. After completing analysis, almost similar types of observations were obtained from two representative cases and remaining other cases. The results obtained from all the samples were found to be very useful in presenting an opinion about the personal identification from finger prints particularly where numbers of visible ridges are very few.

27 DISCUSSIONS Finger prints have been in use for personal identification in India since times immemorial. We have clear evidences of its use as signature in India for almost two and a half centuries. The scientific use of finger prints for identification of criminals started off in the nineteenth century with the publication of Faulds and Hershel s work. Galton proved by his work that the finger prints are inherited characteristics, they are permanent and unique to an individual and show individual and inter finger variations from one population to another. We all agree that the fingerprint identification is based primarily on two factors, uniqueness and permanence. But in order to accurately understand these factors and not just simply impersonate some rigid explanation. One must understand human fetal development of friction skin, Finger prints form in an embryo during the third and fourth months of fetal life. Although skin covers the entire body, ridges are present only on the fingers and palms of the hands, the toes and soles of the feet, and are called friction skin. Friction skin remains on the fingers, palms, toes and soles until the skin decomposes after death, which indicates the foundation of uniqueness. In addition to uniqueness it is pertinent to understand the subsurface structure of human friction skin which form the basis for permanence. This requires some fundamental study of human biological sciences. Thus, the basis for fingerprint identification is firmly rooted in science. In 1969, Penrose introduced topological principles to explain dermal ridge configurations, a system of classification logically based upon these principles was devised and applied in an attempt to solve some genetics and clinical problems. Fingerprint have been studied from genetic point view by various scientists such as Galton, 1891 & 1892; Wilder, 1902; Cummins, 1926; Newman, 1931; Abel, 1936; Geipel, 1941; Holt, 1961; Penrose and O Hara, 1973; and Chattopadhyay, Various scientists tried various methods for taking fingerprints and classified patterns present on the finger balls (Purkinje, 1823; Faulds, 1905; Galton, 1891& 1892; Herschel, 1894; Cummins and Midlo, 1961). Then Wentworth and Wilder, 1918; Bridges, 1963; Chatterjee, 1967; Moenssons, 1971; Cowger, 1983 and Henry and Gaensslen, 1991 further improved the work on the identification and classification of finger prints pattern types.

28 Forensic Science or it is called an applied science in no way implies that it is not a reliable science. It is an understanding of all of the related scientific principles and their correct application that yield accurate, valid results in any comparison including fingerprint. Both poroscopy (Edmund Locard, 1912 and Edgeoscopy (Chaterjee, 1962) are studied seriously by the students of Ridgeology. The shapes and relative positions of sweat pores and the shapes of the edges of the ridges have their origin in fetal development and their physical roots deep in the subsurface structure of the skin. Through study of these features, their formation on the fetus, and their foundation in the dermis and the basal layer of the epidermis, it has been learned that they, like traditional minutiae points, are permanent and unique. And when understood, like minutiae points, they add weight to the conclusion of identification. We cannot afford to ignore sweat pores and shapes of edges of the ridges i.e. part of the valid information present in the print. This is by no means to suggest that an expert should ignore the minutiae points and concentrate on the pores and edge shapes. It is simply to say that one must consider all of the information present in both the latent print (or mark) and the inked print. Traditional minutiae/ ridge characteristics are still the backbone of most comparisons. However, when we get smudged partial and fragmentary fingerprints where enough number of Galton s Details is not present, identification is a problem. In most crime scene cases fingerprints found are most incomplete or partial. Although use of the Poroscopy (study of Pores) and the Edgeoscopy (Study of Edges of the ridges) have been suggested for individualization purposes. They have not been utilized in actual cases. While it is not very difficult to compare and identify complete prints wherever available at the scene of crime, the difficulties are encountered in analyzing partial or smudged prints for identification purposes. In the present study, an attempt has been made to use Poroscopy and Edgeoscopy for identification of individuals from partial, smudged and fragmentary fingerprints. From a sample of prints collected from 100 individuals (57 males and 43 females) on different types of papers namely Ordinary; Executive Bond and Glazed paper. The detailed description and make of different papers selected for taking samples are as follows: Ordinary Paper A (BILT Copy Power) Reflectance of Ordinary Paper A is the whitest; Paper B is blue-white and is the brightest; and Paper C is yellow-white and reflects the most light. The most suitable paper for color

29 reproduction is Paper A as it is neutral and all colors printed on it will be in color and gray balance. Colors printed on paper B will appear bluish; colors printed on Paper C will appear yellowish or reddish. Executive Bond paper (BILT Royal Executive Bond) Royal Executive Bond produced by Ballarpur Industries Ltd (BILT) is a premium range of watermarked business stationery paper has commanded a leadership position in the market since its inception in the year Glazed Paper (Infinity Industries Private Limited) Paper having a glossy or polish surface which is produced by various methods such as friction glazing, calendaring, plating or drying on a Yankee Drier. Of the three types of papers, Executive bond paper was found to be the best paper for taking and analyzing Finger Prints because of the following reasons: 1) Spreading of ink was found to be less than ordinary paper may be because of compactly arranged fibers. 2) Stability of print was found to be more than ordinary and Glazed paper may be because of proper contraction and less absorbance of the ink due to which the characteristics of Identifications were clearly visible and identifiable. Two types of inks (Printers Ink and Stamp pad Ink) were used in the present study. The printers ink particularly the Sirchie brand was found to be more useful than the remaining two (Kores and stamp Pad Ink). Clarity in the Third level details (Poroscopy and Edgeoscopy) were very helpful in preparing magnified photomicrographs, which ultimately become useful in the comparison process particularly when sufficient numbers of first and second level details are not present. The Third level details along with second Level Details (mentioned in Table - II) were studied from all the complete, partial and smudged or fragmented samples collected as per the technique given by Chatterjee, 1962; Kuhn, 1994 Czarrnecki, 1995; Ashbaugh, , 1994, 1995 & The following factors was found to affect the clarity of the Third level details up to different extent in the photomicrographs are Pressure applied Less or excessive amount of ink used Some foreign materials

30 Surface debris on the finger Irregular surface It was also observed that the shape and size of the pores changes with pressure and the amount of ink used but edges of the ridges are not affected much. So the characteristics of Edgeoscopy may be given preference over the characteristics of Poroscopy. It was also observed that only few ridges are available for comparison particularly in smudged or fragmented fingerprints. During inter-see comparison of these prints the corresponding area or ridges needs to be located first in complete and partial prints. Then they are compared with each other on the basis of First level details include patterns, which was not available in all the photomicrographs taken from fragmentary and smudged finger prints. Second level details include ridge characteristics (Ridge Characteristics/Galton Details) a few of them were available in Table-III and photomicrographs-8. Third level details include pores (Poroscopy) and edges of the ridges (Edgeoscopy) which was available in sufficient number for the comparison purposes (Table-III and photomicrographs-8) In the present study the finger print samples were obtained from 100 individuals out of these two cases has been discussed as representative cases. Table III shows only two second level details were present in case-i while remaining 14 points were found to be present from Third Level details and are very clearly visible at their correlated positions in photomicrographs X1 X24 to give opinion in the court of law from fragmented finger prints where very few ridges and ridge characteristics are present. These results were in line with the observations made by other scientists on the importance of Third Level Details. It was also observed that characteristics of Edgeoscopy was least affected by the factors mentioned above than the characteristics of Poroscopy. Further attempt has been made to measure the distances between the characteristics of the Third Level Details with Graphic software and studied statistically by different methods as mentioned in detail earlier, which is expected to add objectivity to the opinion formed from it. There is a need to further strengthen this aspect which will go long way in maintaining the supremacy finger print evidence for personal identification.

31 The study confirms that the poroscopy and Edgeoscopy in the absence of enough number of Galton s details / minutiae can be used for conclusive identification of an individual. This has been corroborated further by a blind trial where all prints were identified correctly.