Books by. Luis Nadeau 2010

Transcription

1 Books by Luis Nadeau 200

2 Books by Luis Nadeau Paypal accepted. Please check for availability before ordering the following titles. ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRINTING, PHOTOGRAPHIC AND PHOTOMECHANICAL PROCESSES, 2 nd edition (200) What critics said of the first (989) edition: "Luis Nadeau has rendered a service to the international community of photohistorians. Indeed, no comparable guide through the terminological maze is now in existence, as far as is known." History of Photography "This extensive work continues the tradition of exhaustiveness Nadeau has staked out in earlier books..." Print Collector's Newsletter "Nadeau has produced a work of great value to the photographic community...it is the most comprehensive compilation of photographic processes that we have ever seen and puts to shame other works which combine in their titles the words encyclopedia and photography'..." The Photograph Collector "One of those... reference works which you may not need to consult all that often, but which is absolutely invaluable when needed." Shutterbug THE ENCYCLOPEDIA: This encyclopedia is the culmination of over 30 years of research on printing, photographic and photomechanical processes. It seeks to clarify the confusion which has resulted from the invention of several hundred such processes. Name any one of them then ask the following questions: WHAT is it? WHO invented it? WHEN? WHERE do you go to find full technical details about it? What is the French and English translation of most processes? This encyclopedia, with over,500 entries and 6,000 references in six languages, provides the answers. Price and availability: To be announced "Months in the lab will save you hours at the library" HISTORY AND PRACTICE OF PLATINUM PRINTING 3rd revised edition "...a solid reference on the history and use of a classic, archival quality photomedium, which is growing in popularity... a valuable book for students, artists, and historians working in photography." "Mr. Nadeau brings a historical and contemporary perspective to the practice of platinum printing... a welcome contribution." Photography Nearly twice as large as previous edition. Contents include: CONSIDERATIONS. FORMULAS. PLATINOTYPES. APPENDIX A. Chronology of Platinum Printing. APPENDIX B. Chemistry Primer, etc. BIBLIOGRAPHY. (ISBN ). 3rd rev. edition, 994, 92 pages, soft cover, 230x53 mm (9"x6"): US$ post. & handling.

3 GUM DICHROMATE and Other Direct Carbon Processes, from Artigue to Zimmerman "His new work is written with insight and lucidity, in which scholarship combines with a solidly practical approach to his subject... another manual, admirably presented, well documented and conscientiously written." Contents include: ENLARGED NEGATIVE. APPENDIX A. Handling and Disposal of Chemicals and Other Safety Considerations. APPENDIX B. How to Build a UV Printer. BIBLIOGRAPHY (ISBN ) 987, 95 pp. Soft cover, 230x53 mm (9"x6"): US$ postage and handling. HISTORY AND PRACTICE OF OIL AND BROMOIL PRINTING "The subject is impeccably researched and lucidly conveyed. A perfectly laudable ferocity of purpose has informed the whole enterprise... the author s dual purpose has been to demystify the history of the great photographic printing processes of the past and to make them accessible again to a new generation of practitioners. In this, he has succeeded with great panache... this work also deserves to become the standard reference manual for conservators and teachers of photo-history." "...the usual thorough work of Nadeau... Well worth adding to your reference shelf" Contents include: PROCESS. FORMULAS. AND BROMOIL PRINTS. SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS. (ISBN ) pages, soft cover only. 230x53 mm (9"x6"): US$9.95+ post. & handling. MODERN CARBON PRINTING A Practical Guide to the Ultimate in Permanent Photographic Printing: Monochrome Carbon Transfer and Carbro Contents include: (ISBN: ) pages, 230x53 mm (9"x6"). Soft Cover. US$9.95+ postage and handling. Order from: Luis Nadeau, P.O. Box 22, Station A, Fredericton, NB, Canada E3B 4Y9. NADEAUL@YAHOO.COM. Please note that books enter the US Duty Free. We take Paypal ( but check with us first for availability and our Paypal address.

4 GUIDE TO THE IDENTIFICATION OF PRINTS, PHOTOGRAPHS, AND DOCUMENTS FEATURING A CHRONOLOGICAL HISTORY OF REPRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES Luis Nadeau Guide to the Identification of Prints, Photographs and Documents (SAMPLE)

5 TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENT... HOW TO USE THIS BOOK...2 I PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSES MONOCHROME PHOTO PROCESSES NEGATIVE & FILM PROCESSES PIGMENT PROCESSES DIRECT CARBON PROCESSES IRON PROCESSES PLATINUM PRINTING PROCESSES APPLIED COLOR PROCESSES, CARTE DE VISITE, CRAYON PORTRAITS AND OTHER STYLES PHOTOGRAPHIC COLOR PRINTING PROCESSES COLOR TRANSPARENCY PROCESSES...6 II PHOTOMECHANICAL PROCESSES 0 PHOTOMECHANICAL PROCESSES...67 SCREENLESS PROCESSES HALF TONE PROCESSES...8 III GRAPHIC PROCESSES 3 GRAPHIC AND PRINTING PROCESSES FOR BOOKS, TEXTILES, ETC COLOR PRINTING PROCESSES FOR BOOKS, TEXTILES, ETC IV MIXED AND OTHER PROCESSES 5 REPRODUCTION PROCESSES FOR MAPS AND ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS OFFICE COPYING & PRINTING PROCESSES... 7 POSTCARDS...29 V IDENTIFICATION OF PROCESSES 8 STUDYING PROCESSES BIBLIOGRAPHY THE ACCESSION FORM THE TOOLS & METHODS ANALYSIS BY X RAY SPECTROMETRY AND OTHER MEANS Marie Claude Corbeil XRDF ANALYSIS OF TWO PHOTOGRAPHS Dusan Stulik IDENTIFICATION OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSES IDENTIFICATION OF PHOTOMECHANICAL PROCESSES IDENTIFICATION OF GRAPHIC PROCESSES...87 VI APPENDICES 26 TERMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ON OR ABOUT PRINTS FRENCH ENGLISH INDEX ENGLISH-FRENCH INDEX...2 INDEX

6 0 MAIN OFFICE COPYING & PRINTING PROCESSES, by Luis Nadeau ( Glutinous ink Hectograph Carbon paper Reflectography Aniline process Blueprint Ferro-gallic Papyrography Edison pen Typewriter stencil Trypograph Cyclostyle Neostyle Autocopyist Photostat Spirit duplicating Electrostatic zinc Diffusion transfer Thermography Xerography Laser printing Color copier Inkjet Main period of use: Period of lesser use: 6 Guide to the Identification of Prints, Photographs and Documents (SAMPLE) toconservation.com

7 6 OFFICE COPYING & PRINTING PROCESSES Processes invented to reproduce documents used in business offices. We also include other significant inventions, like typewriters, etc. Bold dates refer to important advances or inventions. # YEAR COMMENTS BC, ca.... From the scribes of Babylon and Egypt, to the copy clerks of the Victorian era, documents are copied by hand with wedges, quills and pens on clay, papyrus, parchment, or paper as time progressed th cent. AD... The quill is first used in the copying of manuscripts in monasteries. It won t be replaced by another device, the steel pen, until the 9th century. See th cent. AD... Masters of the 6th century produce cartoons that are now highly valued by collectors. This was the recognized method of copying an original drawing on paper by pin pricking it and then dusting it over with a muslin bag containing charcoal or graphite powder to provide the outline copy on which the final work was executed. T.A. Edison made reference to this kind of transfer in his patents Samuel Hartlib in London uses a glutinous ink that can produce a dozen copies when moist sheets of paper are pressed onto it. The process was not used commercially. See Henry Mills artificial machine or method for impressing letters as in writing. is granted an English Patent in 74. The four page patent contains no details but this is considered the ancestor of the modern typewriter James Watt patents and markets the first popular LETTER COPYING PROCESS. Letters written with glutinous ink are pressed against water dampened tissue paper with screw press, aka. screw copying press. The writing appeared in reverse but the thin tissue could be read from the other side. See s... Multiple writing machines which use two or more pens or quills are invented. A well known user of this invention was Thomas Jefferson, third president of the United States of America. These machines were used mostly by businessmen not office copy clerks The first steel pens are hand made by Wise of London but they are not a commercial success until between 820 and 840 when Joseph Gillott and others in Birmingham begin manufacturing them from steel sheets using machinery. See 7th century AD and 850s s... Writing with glutinous and later (after 855) aniline ink (often methyl blue) transferable to a gelatin pad from which several copies could be made, usually of a purple color. Popular after the 850s and 870s and quite common in schools and for home use after ca Known as ANILINE PROCESS; CHROMO- GRAPH; COPYGRAPH (884, ca.); GELATIN METHOD; graph; HECTOGRAPH (late 870s); indirect method; POLYGRAPH (884, ca.) Ralph Wedgwood s manifold stylographic writer is patented in England. The original apparatus was designed as a means of helping blind people to write but 6

8 office copying & printing processes # YEAR COMMENTS 6 a few years later it was adapted to produce copies of private or business letters. A metal stylus was used to write on thin paper under which there was a double sided carbon paper. Wedgwood called it carbonic or carbonated paper. Although popular, this process was not adopted by commercial businesses which preferred their outgoing letters to be written in ink. Some sources indicate that carbon paper was first used in France , ca... TRANSFER LITHOGRAPHY is described by J. Alois Senefelder. Normal writing with a suitable ink on paper can be transferred to a stone which can provide right way around printed text Cyrus P. Sakin, of Concord, Massachusetts, USA is one of the earliest manufacturers of carbon papers for office use BREYERTYPE. Brought into practical use much later as PLAYERTYPE (896) and MANUL PROCESS (93), followed by the TYPON PROCESS (927). These belong to categories known as REFLECTOGRAPHY, REFLEX COPYING PROCESS and REFLEXION COPYING PROCESS. Well-known US brand names were DEXIGRAPH, LINAGRAPH, Rectigraph, Retocee (diazo system) and Ruthurstat. Aluna, Rectophot, Lumoprint, Ultrakop and many others popular in Germany and other European countries. See 896 PLAYERTYPE, for description The first viable photographic process, the DAGUERREOTYPE, is made public. Other processes, e.g., SALT PRINT, BLUEPRINT, CALOTYPE. have been used from time to time to make copies of office documents s... ANASTATIC PROCESS OF LITHOGRAPHY. Invented in Germany and introduced in England in 844. Used for FACSIMILE reproductions. A print soaked in dilute nitric acid is applied firmly onto a sheet of zinc, allowing the acid to etch the metal where the ink of the print does not prevent it. After more etching, the plate is ready to be inked up with a roller and provide many impressions Herschel s BLUEPRINT PROCESS, aka. FERROPRUSSIATE. Little used in North America until ca This uses the sensitivity of ferric salts reduced by the action of light to a ferrous state, resulting in the precipitation of Prussian blue (ferric ferrocyanide) by the action of potassium ferricyanide. This process provides white lines on a blue background. When this process is used to produce pictorial photographs from negatives, it is called CYANOTYPE The Copiste électro-chimique is introduced by the Maison Beau in Paris. Said to be affordable and likely to replace the old copy press s... The quill is being replaced by the steel pen, now manufactured on a large scale. The transition will be complete by the turn of the century. See s 950s... Watt s glutinous ink process (see 780) becomes popular in the form of the LETTER COPYING BOOK PROCESS (aka. copier letter-book). The book consisted of tissues, up to a thousand, serially numbered and bound in a leather spined volume with index. Copy was made by dampening the tissue in situ with water from a brush or cotton cloth soaked in water and placed flat on top of the tissue. Sheets of oiled paper were used to insulate the wet tissue from adjacent dry tissues in the book. After insertion of a freshly written and dried original, the whole book was closed and placed for half a minute in a screw press. See AUTOGRAPHIC PROCESS. Early application of LITHOGRAPHY. This patented version, involving an autographic press had been purchased by Waterlow & Sons. 2 CAPITALIZED words have their own entries in our encyclopedia Guide to the Identification of Prints, Photographs and Documents (SAMPLE)

9 office copying & printing processes # YEAR COMMENTS A British chemist, William Perkin, synthesizes the first aniline dye, mauvine. This dye will be used extensively in glutinous ink processes, e.g., LETTER COPYING BOOK PROCESS (850s 950s) and HECTOGRAPH ANILINE PROCESS of William Willis. A DICHROMATED paper was exposed under a positive and subjected to the fumes of aniline, by which means aniline colors were formed. For twenty years the process was used mostly in Europe for the reproduction of tracings with little competition other than that of the BLUEPRINT (876) and PELLET (877) processes. Edward Anthony purchased the aniline process rights for America but failed to make it work successfully for more than a few months in , ca.... As a result of permission granted to Western traders to enter Japan, Japanese tissues (papers) are imported and used as copying papers in letter books. See 850s 950s First demonstration of a practical typewriter for commercial use, the Sholes and Glidden typewriter, in the New York office of E. Remington and Sons, Gunsmiths and Sewing Machine manufacturers. Lebbeus Rogers took the opportunity to show that his carbon papers could be used with this new invention. Commercial production of the typewriter started the following year s... PAPYROGRAPHY, by Eugenio de Zuccato in London. A special type of ink (a solution of caustic soda) is used to write upon a specially prepared paper. The sheet is then soaked in water, and the ink corrodes the fabric of the wet paper, leaving open lines in place of the writing. The sheet is then used as a STENCIL. This is the first recorded use of the word stencil associated with the reproduction of handwriting. Used in Britain and in the USA during the 870s and 880s. Disappeared in the 890s , ca.... The LETTER COPYING BOOK PROCESS becomes a standard office procedure. See 850s 950s BLUEPRINT paper becomes popular in North America. See s... EDISON ELECTRIC PEN. This produces a STENCIL made by the aid of a style containing a fine needle which is moved up and down by a small motor at the top of the pen. This creates a series of minute holes that produce a stencil which can be used to provide more than 500 copies. Copies were spidery, recognizably dotted and were generally poor representations of handwriting. Edison referred to this process as Autographic Printing. It never proved popular in Europe nor in Britain but was used in the USA until the 890s TRYPOGRAPH, or FILE PLATE PROCESS. Patented by Eugenio de Zuccato and commercialized from early 880s. Similar to the CYCLOSTYLE wheel pen (88), except that the paper was stretched over a metal plate that had a multitude of sharp corrugations, which pierced the paper as a stylus was moved over them. Styli were made fine, medium and broad and files correspondingly coarse or fine but copies obtained from these STENCILS, made with a fluid ink, were spidery. With a magnifying glass it is possible to see the pattern of the file plate grooving in the form of ink dots from the holes in the stencil. See COLLOGRAPHY. Invented in England by A. Pumphrey. A film of gelatin on glass was dichromate sensitized and dried. Writing or drawing was done on a suitable paper with solutions of iron salts, nutgalls, or similar substances. This tanned the gelatin surface, to which the design was next transferred. By keeping the gelatin pad moist and applying an ink roller, the lines would take 6 CAPITALIZED words have their own entries in our encyclopedia 3

10 office copying & printing processes # YEAR COMMENTS 6 the greasy ink, but the white parts would repel it. Paper was then brought into contact with the pad, and an impression taken by rubbing or squeegeeing. See 89 AUTOCOPYIST s, late... The HECTOGRAPH becomes popular. See s. The name is derived from the Greek, hekaton, meaning a hundred but the process was never capable of making that many impressions from one image on a gelatin pad. In Germany, the process was known originally as Schapirograph The TRYPOGRAPH duplicating apparatus (877) but not the FILE PLATE PRO- CESS, is patented in America by E. de Zuccato. T.A. Edison obtains a patent in 880 for a similar method of perforating a sheet of paper by placing it on a bed of needle points, or on a grooved metal plate, and writing on it with a blunt metal stylus. Edison sold his MIMEOGRAPH process to Unz in Philadelphia in 885 who did not exploit it, but sold it to A.B. Dick in 887. See 887 MIMEOGRAPH , ca... CYCLOSTYLE wheel pen invented by David Gestetner. First patented in England, it is made available in America in 884. A thin paper coated with paraffin wax on one side, is stretched over a smooth metal plate. The writing instrument holds a small wheel having a serrated edge, perforating the paper with minute, cut lines, creating a STENCIL. It was a do it yourself type of printing sometimes called AUTOGRAPHIC PRINTING. This process, a major breakthrough, was also used for MUSIC duplication. See 888 Neostyle , ca... COPYGRAPH. A type of HECTOGRAPH. See s , ca... POLYGRAPH. Writing with aniline ink transferable to a gelatin pad from which several copies could be made. Also known as ANILINE PROCESS; CHRO- MOGRAPH; GELATIN METHOD; graph, HECTOGRAPH (late 870s); INDIRECT METHOD. See s MIMEOGRAPH (STENCIL). File plate process invented by Zuccato (877) and T.A. Edison (880) and marketed by A.B. Dick Company of Chicago. Used to duplicate both handwritten and eventually typewritten texts. See John Brodrick is granted a US patent for the first successful STENCIL material suitable for a typewriter; a handmade Japanese tissue of a very porous structure, the Yoshino, was the basis for this stencil. This was the tissue that Gestetner imported from Japan once he started the manufacture of typewriting stencils. The Yoshino paper was replaced in the 930s by a machine made paper. For a long time, stencils were coated with wax but the modern material used nitrocellulose, plasticized with oils to make them pressure sensitive , ca.... A new HOME COPYING PROCESS involves tracing a photo with autographic ink, which is then transferred to a zinc plate s... NEOSTYLE wheel pen. American name given to David Gestetner s British Neo Cyclostyle (sometimes called diaphragm duplicators ). STENCIL process for handwriting that replaced CYCLOSTYLE (88) with a superior wheel pen that allowed more comfortable writing. Thousands of copies could be made in one hour using an indestructible paper stencil. By 889 the Pennsylvania Cyclostyle Co. was boasting that it had 60,000 customers among American firms and institutions. Still used in some parts of the world in the 970s. See , ca. cyclostype AUTOCOPYIST (877) becomes popular in the USA. An improved version of COLLOGRAPHY (878) which made use of a matrix made of parchment 4 CAPITALIZED words have their own entries in our encyclopedia Guide to the Identification of Prints, Photographs and Documents (SAMPLE)

11 office copying & printing processes # YEAR COMMENTS stretched over a bed plate. The printing was made by means of an ordinary letter copying press. By 89, the French designed Autocopiste was becoming popular in the U.S.A. Other variations included the PHOTO AUTOCOPYIST (ca. 895) and Autocopiste noir, aka. Black Autocopyist David Gestetner and Albert Blake Dick (aka. A.B. Dick) enter into various reciprocal business agreements concerning the manufacture and sale of STEN- CIL duplicating equipment in Great Britain and America , ca... Introduction of the Gestetner Automatic Cyclostyle, patented in 89 and manufactured until ca. 90. This device was a major contribution to the progress of STENCIL duplicating although it did not replace the Neostyle (888) , ca.... The FILE PLATE PROCESS (see 877 TRYPOGRAPH) reached the Far East ca. 894, from the USA and quickly became popular as Chinese and Japanese typewriters, with as many as 3,000 type characters, are difficult to use. The process was still used to some extent in the 970s The word duplicator comes into use, for the first time in an advertisement in Knowledge dated Dec. 2, 895, by the Ellams Duplicating Company An American, Henry W. Lowe, of Omaha, patents a rotary STENCIL machine (single drum) which will be licensed to A.B. Dick (Rotary mimeograph) and A.D. Klaber (Rotary Neostyle, 899) s... PLAYERTYPE. A REFLEX COPYING PROCESS, also referred to as REFLECTOGRA- PHY, in which a silver gelatin paper is placed face down on the printed matter, pressed into contact and exposed through the back of the silver paper. The light passing through the paper is reflected back from the white surface of the letter, plan, or drawing, whereas the dark lines of the latter hardly reflect any light at all. On development, a negative copy is obtained. See 839 BREY- ERTYPE Rotary STENCIL machines based on Lowe s patent are manufactured and sold in America by A.D. Klaber under the name of Rotary Neostyles, seemingly marketed at first as the Neostyle or Nero A.B. Dick of Chicago also obtains a license to make and sell rotary STENCIL duplicating machines based on Lowe s patent A.D. Klaber moves to England to create the Neostyle Manufacturing Company in 900 and the following year markets the Rotary Neostyle and the Roneo Water-bath copier, the first mechanized departure from the screw copyingpress Roneo is trademarked by A.D. Klaber, coining the word from the Ro of Rotary and the Neo of NEOSTYLE. See , ca The first twin cylinder duplicating machine based on the Gestetner patents is called the Gestetner Rotary Cyclostype. The No. 3 model, following two prototypes, was manufactured until A.D. Klaber loses the rights to the trademark Neostyle and renames his product Roneo, which he had trademarked in 90. See above Roneo Limited, with A.D. Klaber as managing director is formed to take over the business of the Neostyle Manufacturing Company ?... PHOTOSTAT. A camera that uses SILVER HALIDE photographic paper instead of film. Originally, the copy was negative, i.e., white text on black back 6 CAPITALIZED words have their own entries in our encyclopedia 5

12 office copying & printing processes # YEAR COMMENTS 6 ground, unless rephotographed to obtain black text on a white background. In 953 Eastman Kodak Co. introduced a DIRECT POSITIVE paper, KODAK PHO- TOSTAT POSITIVE W PAPER, which offered black text on white background. Other brands included Rectigraph , ca.... LUMINOGRAPHY. The modern REFLEX COPYING apparatus, although a direct descendant of the original reflex copying methods, including PLAYERTYPE (896), is usually considered to have developed directly from a German process to which the name 'Luminography' was given. This process used, as a light source, a fluorescent plate. The plate was coated with a composition which when exposed to bright light, fluoresced strongly and so supplied a portable light source. The colour, and therefore to some extent the actinic value of the fluorescing screen could be controlled by varying the composition of the paste with which the screens were coated MANUL process. Aka. Ullmann process, or LITHO REFLECTOGRAPHY. A variation of the PLAYERTYPE (896) which uses dichromated gelatin to make FAC- SIMILE reproductions of bound books without taking them apart. See 927 TY- PON , ca.... Blueprint typewriter ribbon, introduced in England. Gave a rich orange color (inactinic) on a paper preferably translucent. This in turn could produce copies on BLUEPRINT paper SPIRIT DUPLICATING, introduced by Wilhelm Ritzerfeld, founder of the Ormig Company, in Germany. The master copy was a negative made by typing or writing on a sheet of nonabsorbent paper backed with a carbon containing dye. Copies were made by moistening the sheets of paper with the volatile fluid and bringing them into direct contact, under pressure, with the negative impression of the master copy. The master sheet was clamped on a rotary drum. With each rotation of the drum the moisture on the copy sheet dissolved a very small fraction or layer of the dye on the master copy. This produced positive results usually of purple color on the copy sheet DIAZOTYPE. First process to seriously compete with the BLUEPRINT, which it replaced by the 950s for the REPRODUCTION OF MAPS, PLANS, ETC. Also known as WHITEPRINT; AMMONIA PRINT; B&W; GAS PRINT; 3M DRY DIAZO. By the 950s the diazo technology was used in large enterprises for office copying Remington introduces first electric typewriter TYPON process. A Swiss variation of the PLAYERTYPE (896) that used silver gelatin materials to make facsimile reproductions of bound books without taking them apart. See 93 MANUL s?... REPLIKA. A modified OFFSET LITHOGRAPHY process for the reproduction of books Océ developed a diazo application that allowed copies to be made of nontranslucent originals. For a number of years, this process, known as RetOcé, was the only process available for making copies inexpensively and easily. This dominance lasted until nearly 945, when electrophotographic copying began making inroads as the preferred copying method. By the time the first electrophotographic copying machines arrived on the market in 956, RetOcé was no longer the copy method of choice XEROGRAPHY is invented. Not commercialized before 948 and not popular before CAPITALIZED words have their own entries in our encyclopedia Guide to the Identification of Prints, Photographs and Documents (SAMPLE)

13 office copying & printing processes # YEAR COMMENTS s... OZAPHANE. Developed by the Ozaphane Corporation of America. A diazo light sensitive compound in the film substance, a cellulose acetate base much thinner than regular film used for MICROCOPY work. As the process is a direct print method the results are called direct copies, that is a negative from negative or positive from positive. The light sensitive compounds are dyestuffs in the colloidal state, therefore the image is virtually grainless and so the resolving power of the material is very high, a property of first importance for material used in microcopy (MICROFILM) work. Development calls for exposure to ammonia vapour for about a minute s-950s... As output devices early computers use adaptations of three typewriter-based serial impact printing terminals: IBM Model B typewriter, Teletype, and the Friden Flexowriter (which was built around IBM typewriter mechanics) Airgraph, or V Mail, is developed by the British Post Office and Kodak as a system for microfilming letters to conserve shipping space during World War II. Ilford introduces its Micro Neg microfilm The IBM Electric Executive Typewriter, the first typewriter with proportional letter spacing, is introduced The ENIAC, considered the first large scale digital computer, is introduced at the University of Pennsylvania. Output was by IBM card punch at 00 cards per minute (80 characters per card). The cards could then be carried to a tabulating machine and printed out off-line , ca.... GESTEPRINT PROCESS, devised by the Gestetner Co., combines the REFLEX PROCESS of copying, with a PHOTO STENCIL produced with a SILVER BROMIDE emulsion coated on both sides of a Yoshino Japanese tissue. The process, which uses a tanning developer instead of DICHROMATED GELATINE, can be adapted to the reproduction of photographs with a HALF-TONE screen KODAGRAPH AUTOPOSITIVE PAPER. A SILVER PROCESS that gave a direct positive image with a single development operation. Widely used as a REPRODUC- TION PROCESS FOR MAPS, PLANS, ETC. for the final print and as an intermediate. The paper could be handled in bright room light and could be used in the same equipment as that used for DIAZO or BLUEPRINT papers, provided a yellow filter was employed KODAGRAPH AUTOPOSITIVE FILM. A SILVER PROCESS, with the emulsion coated on a translucent film support that permitted erasures and additions in ink or pencil to the photographic image or on the support side. Because of its transparency, the film allowed considerably faster travel on DIAZO and BLUE PRINT exposing equipment than did KODAGRAPH AUTOPOSITIVE PAPER (947) XEROGRAPHY commercially introduced. Its basic principle was invented in 938 and became popular after 960. One source says that the first Xerox copier was tested during 949 and was marketed one year later DIFFUSION TRANSFER REVERSAL (DTR), in the UK, aka. as chemical transfer. Agfa s Copyrapid; Gevaert s Gevacopy (950); Kodak VERIFAX ( ); DIAVERSAL; COPYPROOF (980s?); DT was widespread in various countries by 960. Other products not specifically intended as copying processes, which used similar technology include PHOTOMECHANICAL TRANSFER, PMT; Kodak Ektaflex (98); Polaroid, sepia (948), id., black and white (950), id., color (963). 6 CAPITALIZED words have their own entries in our encyclopedia 7

14 office copying & printing processes # YEAR COMMENTS KODAGRAPH REPRO NEGATIVE PAPER. A low speed negative material (SILVER PROCESS) that could be used in drawing reproduction equipment in well lighted rooms THERMOGRAPHY. The process uses heat sensitive paper, exposed to infrared radiation by the REFLEX method. The process was not suitable for many dye images that did not reflect infrared radiations (see 896 PLAYERTYPE). The basic principle was discovered in 939 but was not put on the market before 950 by 3M Company under the name 3M THERMO FAX Floppy disk invented at the Imperial University in Tokyo by Doctor Yoshiro Nakamats, the sales license for the disk was granted to IBM Roneo introduces the Electronic Stencil Cutting Machine, which consisted of the electronic scanning of an original fitted to a revolving cylinder and the transmission of electric impulses, of varying strength according to the intensity of light and dark on the original, to a needle from which minute sparks burnt a corresponding image on a revolving carbon-based stencil. The Mark II was developed and ready by 958, faster and fitted with filters for color separation, enabling multi-color tone work to be produced on the Roeno 750 with its accurate registration.... it was however found to be too expensive, and in due course the cheaper Scanomatic table model appeared and became the basis of all subsequent development DUOSTAT is introduced by Kodak Ltd. (U.K.) Apparently not available in US. A SILVER PROCESS. A type of STABILIZATION process involving a porous plate, on which the exposed paper was placed, and the application of a developer and stabilizing solutions by means of a viscose sponge. Subsequently, stabilization processing was reduced to a single operation by the use of a single solution developer stabilizer s... Criterion, in England, introduces DUOPRINT, a contact document paper with a sensitive silver emulsion on both sides s... INKJET recorders appear. Siemens Mingograf oscilloscopic recorder is introduced in 952. Inkjet typewriters will appear in the 960s s... By the 950s DIAZO technology is used in large enterprises for office copying s?... KODAK REFLEX COPY PAPER, Type 075. Could be used in subdued room light Kodak VERIFAX. Based on a DIFFUSION TRANSFER invention by Yutzy and Yackel in 947. This GELATIN DYE TRANSFER process could produce prints by REFLECTOGRAPHY on plain, uncoated paper stock, with overall brown cast. It used a soft gelatin image that contained developed silver halides and dye, as a printing matrix from which up to a dozen prints could be obtained by physical transfer of the soft gelatin. READYPRINT was a different brand using the same technology with a matrix that produced a unique copy. EKTALITH was a variant with a projection speed emulsion. See 896 PLAYERTYPE CARBONLESS PAPER. Transfer, chemical type, produced by Appleton Coated Paper for NCR. This often produced a purple image. Mostly used for multiple copy business forms s?... KODAK PHOTOSTAT POSITIVE W PAPER and KODAGRAPH PROJECTION POSITIVE PAPER are introduced for limited use, primarily for copying waybills for railway and steamship companies. See 909 PHOTOSTAT today... ELECTROFAX. Direct electrostatic (or DIRECT ELECTROPHOTOGRAPHY) on a support coated with zinc oxide developed with a liquid or dry toner. Essen- 8 CAPITALIZED words have their own entries in our encyclopedia Guide to the Identification of Prints, Photographs and Documents (SAMPLE)

15 office copying & printing processes # YEAR COMMENTS tially a XEROGRAPHIC process except that the image is not formed on a metal drum but on zinc oxide coated paper which becomes the copy s... STABILIZATION PROCESS. A SILVER PROCESS first shown in the DUOSTAT (948, ca) but not popular before significant improvements were made. See 956 RETROFLEX The total dollar volume of the office copy industry in America is now at $50 million. Ten years later the industry will have grown more than tenfold, steadily climbing toward the $ billion mark RETROFLEX. SILVER PROCESS. Announced by Kodak Pathé, used stabilization processing and produced a positive in room light without plumbing and washing equipment. The copy was placed under the translucent support of the Retroflex paper and exposed through the back of the original document. The definition was not as good as that obtained in emulsion to emulsion contact, but was satisfactory s (late)... COLOR TONERS for ELECTROFAX and Haloid Corp. Xerox (7 colors) First DOT MATRIX PRINTER is marketed by IBM ELECTROLYTIC PROCESS for 3M Filmac line of microfilm reader printers. The zinc oxide hard copies could be produced up to 45.7 x 6 cm (8 x 24 inches) XEROGRAPHY (TRANSFER ELECTROPHOTOGRAPHY) becomes popular. Invented in 938 and introduced commercially in s?... VQC (3M, VARIABLE QUALITY COPIER) s... EICHNER DRYCOPY PROCESS. A variant form of thermographic copying. See 950 THERMOGRAPHY DUAL SPECTRUM PROCESS. A dry process in which the energy coming from the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum forms a latent image, which is made visible by the invisible radiant energy of the infrared region of the spectrum. Marketed by 3M. A small, light blue flame emblem is imprinted on the back of each sheet to distinguish the coated from the uncoated side. A transparent receptor sheet was available for the production of TRANSPARENCIES that could be used with overhead projectors s... ADHEROGRAPHY. A duplicating process developed by 3M. Images were formed by the adherence of powder to a tacky latent image created by the effect of infrared heat. This provided a master from which 200 to 250 copies could be made. The powder image of the resulting print was fused to the paper by heat. See 965, ca. IMAGIC s... Continuous INKJET printing with a steady stream of ink remains the prevalent inkjet technology. An improved version of this process will be introduced by Iris in s... IMPACT PRINTING becomes the most widely used process in computer related applications. Dot matrix and daisy wheel printers involve mechanical parts like needles or letters transferring ink by hitting a paper surface IBM introduces the Selectric typewriter, which uses letters on a golf ball CARBONLESS. Action paper is introduced by 3M. By 974 there were 6 major producers of carbonless paper worldwide THERMALLY PROCESSED SILVER. (TPS) film, commonly referred to as dry silver, was first commercialized by 3M Company in the mid 960s with the introduction of microfilm reader printers. TPS films and papers are now com 6 CAPITALIZED words have their own entries in our encyclopedia 9

16 office copying & printing processes 6 mon in many areas once limited to wet electrostatic and silver halide technologies Xerox introduced the LDX (Long Distance Xerography) FAX (FACSIMILE) machine Texas Instrument invents the semiconductor-based THERMAL PRINTER. See 969; The Ditto Combomatic the world s first combination copier-duplicator is introduced Canon introduces the Canofax 000 electro-facsimile copying machine M ELECTROCOLOR PRINT. Produces permanent prints. Not commercialized , ca.... Imagic, a trade name of Imagic Processes Ltd (UK) for a THERMOGRAPHIC PROCESS in which an exposed material changes the volatile characteristics of a solvent, leaving a latent image which is made visible by the application of a toner powder. See 960s ADHEROGRAPHY COLOR IN COLOR. First full color copier, by 3M, using a direct electrostatic process combined with dye sublimation (thermal dye transfer). Produced bright images on a velvety or glossy surface. Details suppressed. Five years before another ELECTROSTATIC PROCESS: the Xerox 6500 Color copier In the early 960s Seiko Epson was established to develop crystal chronometers and printing timers for official timekeeping at the 964 Tokyo Olympics. Based on those technologies, the company introduced the world s first commercially successful printer mechanism four years later, the EP , ca... THERMOGRAPHIC WASH OFF FILM. Gevaert Agfa Transparex film for overhead TRANSPARENCIES and Thermoline Wash Off Film for reproduction of maps, plans, etc Texas Instruments announces Silent 700 data terminal, first to use thermal printing technology. See 965; A.B. Dick Company introduces the Model 9600 printer in 969. They claim this was the world's first commercial inkjet printer. See 950s Gary Starkweather, while working with Xerox, invents the LASER printer Canon unveils the NP 00, Japan s first plain paper copier, circumventing 600 Xerox patents Ricoh invents the first digital fax (FACSIMILE) machine s... DAISY WHEEL TYPEWRITERS are becoming popular, but the daisy wheel itself dates back to 890 when it was used on the Victor Typewriter Agfa Gevaert introduces the first European xerographic copier Texas Instrument introduces the Silent 700 Portable Terminal line. The Model 725's rapid and quiet, non-impact printing results from its innovative solid-state silicon printhead an integrated circuit matrix of 35 elements which instantly create the desired character CAPITALIZED words have their own entries in our encyclopedia Guide to the Identification of Prints, Photographs and Documents (SAMPLE)

17 COLOR GUIDE INDEX (not complete) TEXT OR LINES BACKGROUND NOTE black... white... See most processes black... bluish... See 954 today ELECTROFAX black... brown... See Kodak VERIFAX blue, methyl (aniline)... white... See 805s 950s blue... white... See 920s DIAZOTYPE brown... white (or now brownish)... text may have been black or sepia originally purple... white or colored... See 920s SPIRIT DUPLICATING purple... white... See 953 CARBONLESS PAPER white... black... See 909 PHOTOSTAT white... blue... See 842 BLUEPRINT yellow... white or yellowish... text may have been black originally various colors... white... Various. See 950s (late) color toners for ELECTROFAX. Haloid Co. (later Xerox) introduced 7 colors; 968 COLOR IN COLOR; 973 XEROX Color Copier PAPER/SUPPORT TYPE GUIDE (not complete) PLAIN, UNCOATED PAPER STOCK. This includes most processes. See below for processes that require(d) specially coated paper stock. SPECIALLY COATED PAPER STOCK. This includes 889 today VANDYKE process; 896 PLAYER- TYPE; 909 today PHOTOSTAT; 920s DIAZOTYPE; 947 KODAGRAPH AUTOPOSITIVE PAPER; 948 DU- OSTAT; 949 DIFFUSION TRANSFER; KODAGRAPH REPRO NEGATIVE PAPER; 950 THERMOGRA- PHY; 950s? KODAK REFLEX COPY PAPER; 953 today KODAK PHOTOSTAT POSITIVE W PAPER and KODA- GRAPH PROJECTION POSITIVE PAPER???; 955 today STABILIZATION PROCESS; 956 RETROFLEX; 958 ELECTROLYTIC Filmac; 960s ELECTROFAX; 960s? VQC*???; 964 THERMALLY PROCESSED SILVER (TPS; dry silver) paper; 960 DUAL SPECTRUM PROCESS*; 965 3M ELECTROCOLOR PRINT....

18 2 ANALYSIS BY X RAY SPECTROMETRY AND OTHER MEANS Marie Claude Corbeil While it is often possible for an experienced observer to distinguish photographic processes just by visual examination, in other cases it can be difficult. For example, platinum and palladium prints may have different appearances depending on parameters such as the chemical formulations of sensitizers, developers, and toners, as well as variations of the length of exposure or of the developing solution temperature; because of these variations in appearance, it is sometimes difficult to determine if a photograph is a PLATINUM or a PALLADIUM print (). On occasion, salted paper print may be confused with a platinum or palladium print. To confuse the situation further, matte silver gelatin and collodion chloride papers were sometimes manufactured to imitate platinum prints (, 2). DAGUERREOTYPES are easy to recognize, however establishing if a gold toning was applied is sometimes difficult. When it is not possible to identify a photographic process unambiguously solely on the basis of visual examination, one can resort to analysis, and more specifically to analysis by energy dispersive x-ray spectrometry (EDS), sometimes referred to as x-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF). The energy dispersive x-ray spectrometer has been called the Curator's Dream Instrument (3), because analyses are performed in situ, without damaging the artifact or having to take a sample. It has been used to study a wide range of museum objects and works of art (4). Energy dispersive x-ray spectrometry is based on the ability of chemical elements to emit energy in the form of x-rays when they are subjected to an x-ray beam. The emitted x-rays have energies which are characteristic of each element. Therefore, x-ray spectrometry provides information about the chemical elements present in the artifact. However, since the depth of penetration of the incoming x-rays varies depending on the composition of the object being analyzed, x-rays emitted from chemical elements being excited may originate not only from the surface of the object, but also from underlying layers. Therefore interpretation of the results is not always straightforward and requires experienced knowledge of the structure and chemistry of the object being analyzed. A feature of this technique that makes it particularly attractive, besides the fact that is does not require taking samples, as stated earlier, is that it is fast; usually results are obtained in a few minutes. A limitation of the technique is that, because the analysis is performed in open air, only elements of atomic number 20 and greater are detected. Radioisotopes or sealed x-ray tubes can be used as the source of x-rays. Secondary x-rays emitted by objects subjected to the analysis are detected using an intrinsic germanium detector or a lithium-drifted silicon detector, which allows for simultaneous detection of all chemical elements. In recent years compact, portable systems have been developed, making it possible to conduct analysis outside the laboratory, in museums and galleries (5). Energy dispersive x-ray spectrometry proved to be very useful for the examination of photographs. Light-sensitive elements used in photographic emulsion such as silver, platinum, and palladium, can be detected by EDS, as well as elements used in toners, such as gold (6). The technique was tested on test samples of salted paper, albumen paper, salted cotton, and AZO paper prints, as well as on test samples of PLATINOTYPE, CYANOTYPE, and GUM DICHROMATE prints (7). Test samples of platinum and palladium prints and platinum/palladium combination prints, as well as similar samples that were mercury-developed, gold- or uranium toned, or silver-intensified, were studied (). EDS can also be applied to the study of painted photographs (7). 2. Senior Conservation Scientist, Analytical Research Laboratory, Canadian Conservation Institute, Ottawa, Canada. 53 Guide to the Identification of Prints, Photographs and Documents (SAMPLE)

19 analysis by x ray spectrometry and other means 2 While photographic processes in which the image is produced by metallic chemical elements such as silver, platinum, and palladium, can easily be distinguished by EDS, other photographic processes involving chemical compounds that may be present in concentrations that are below the detection limit of the method are not necessarily easy to characterize using this technique. For instance, chromium was detected in very low amounts in carbon transfer and WOODBURYTYPE prints examined in our laboratory, but is was not detected in test samples of gum dichromate prints (7). However, it was detected, together with platinum, in a photograph that was well documented as having been produced using the combined process gum bichromate printing over platinum; in this case, it is likely that the x-rays emitted by platinum enhanced the fluorescence of chromium, making it possible to detect it. It is also possible that the concentration of dichromate salt used was simply higher in this print. A number of less common photographic processes, such as CHRYSOTYPE and OROTONE, were investigated with this technique, with limited success (8). As stated earlier, emitted x-rays may originate not only from the surface of a photographic print, but also from underlying layers such as the paper support. Paper can contain a number of metallic chemical elements such as iron, zinc, lead, and copper (6, 9), that will be detected simultaneously with the elements from the image. Such elements do not interfere in the examination of silver, platinum, or palladium prints. However, the presence of iron in paper could interfere with the examination of a cyanotype, for example, as it would be difficult to determine without ambiguity the source of iron. Another element that can be detected in photographic prints is barium, which is usually associated with a barium sulfate layer (sometimes called baryta layer) that was applied to the paper prior to the emulsion in order to obtain a whiter surface. The presence of barium, hence of a baryta layer, may help date a print, as papers coated with baryta layer were produced commercially starting in 880 (0, ). The photograph shown in Figure was analyzed by EDS using an americium-24 source and a lithium-drifted silicon detector (Figure 2). The spectrum obtained from analyzing the dark area at the proper right of the subject*s neck is shown on Figure 3a. The major peaks are those of barium (Ba), indicating that the paper is Fig. coated with a baryta layer. Minor and trace peaks correspond to those of iron, zinc, copper, lead, and calcium, which are likely associated with the paper, as discussed above. The unlabeled peaks, in the middle of the spectrum, are artifacts from the source; americium-24 itself emits the neptunium L x-rays that account for a large number... 54

20 24 IDENTIFICATION OF PHOTOMECHANICAL PROCESSES The importance of proper print identification cannot be overstressed as it contributes to both the enjoyment and scholarship of print and photograph collecting. In this chapter we will review the main reproduction processes that make use of a light-sensitive emulsion for a part of the printing process. These are commonly referred to as photomechanical processes. Terminology: printing vs. imaging technologies. There are many ways to describe a print. In common parlance a half-tone photoengraving print may be described as a letterpress print, a half-tone print, a relief print, aphotographic print, a typographic print, an engraving, etc. These terms can be ambigious or misleading. It is important to be as accurate as possible and make a distinction between the printing technology and the imaging technology. In the above example half-tone refers to the imaging process that translates a photograph into an image made of dots that can be reproduced with a printing process. Thus a half-tone photoengraving is a complete description. The term photoengraving alone would not be as accurate since it would not indicate whether the print is a line reproduction or a half-tone or grain reproduction made by a relief process. In many cases the reader will note that the reproduction of photomicrographs as seen in a book, will not be able to show the subtelties between various processes. This is especially true in the case of line processes. Identified originals should be studied under the guidance of someone who is experienced with this kind of examination and who has a considerable collection of identified originals to draw upon. We have taken the liberty of quoting extensively from historical manuals. The photomicrographs are from originals in our own collection which can be studied by our students. Three main categories of photomechanical processes. RELIEF PROCESSES... Line processes..2. Screenless or grain processes..3. Half-tone processes. 2. INTAGLIO PROCESSES. 2.. Line processes Screenless or grain processes Half-tone processes. 3. PLANOGRAPHIC PROCESSES. 3.. Screenless, stochastic, grain or continuous tone processes Half-tone processes Guide to the Identification of Prints, Photographs and Documents (SAMPLE)