Understanding the Digital Divide: An Annotated Bibliography for Librarians and Educators

Transcription

1 Understanding the Digital Divide: An Annotated Bibliography for Librarians and Educators Christine Gingrich INFO 522: Information Access & Resources Drexel University March 13, 2011

2 Christine Gingrich 2 Introduction and Scope This bibliography focuses on the various parts and concerns of the Digital Divide; the original definition, the current issues, and solutions which the reader can use in order to narrow the Divide. The main purpose of the bibliography is for teachers, school librarians, public librarians, and higher-level librarians to educate themselves about the problems created by the Digital Divide, and to provide the readers with plausible suggestions and solutions, which they can use to lessen the effects of the Digital Divide in their schools and libraries. The articles come from a variety of scholarly sources, especially The Electronic Library. These articles span a number of years, covering past setbacks and present concerns in order to support a well-rounded understanding of the Digital Divide. A memorandum from President William J. Clinton in 1999 is included in order to provide background about the original concerns about the Digital Divide, while an article from earlier this year provides research on the current technical literacy concerns of the Digital Divide. Many of the articles focus on the educational problems generated by the Digital Divide, while others focus on the links between demographic issues and the Digital Divide in communities. While the articles range in topics and concerns, each covers vital issues caused by the Digital Divide and provides practical suggestions and solutions. Considering the fact that the Digital Divide has changed dramatically and affected most of the world population within the past 12 years, it is reasonable to assume that this dynamic entity will continue to cause problems in the future. In order to combat these problems, the importance of the Digital Divide must be fully understood, and attempts need to be made to bridge the gap, especially in schools and libraries. Description As defined by Dictionary.com, the Digital Divide is the gap between those people who have internet access and those who do not. This is a common, general definition, referring to the concern that those who cannot access or afford the Internet forgo important opportunities in education, the workforce, and society in general. However, the Digital Divide has become so much more than the gap between the haves and have-nots; while this definition is still a major concern, newer issues have occurred which broaden the scope of the divide, and give this topic much more of a detrimental impact. The Digital Divide now also refers to the inequities among individuals who have access to technology and opportunities to learn [information

3 Christine Gingrich 3 technology] skills (Hohlfeld, 2008). Since the vast majority of libraries and schools now have essential technology, the majority of the population has some form of access to technology, effectively lessening the effect of the original concern. However, partially alleviating the original issue has given rise to many new parts of the Digital Divide, each of which is pressing and relevant. The current major Digital Divide topics include age gaps among the older generation, gender inequality, inadequate motivation, ESL patrons, societal influences which lead to onesided technical literacy, inadequate provisions for those with physical or mental disabilities, teachers with neglected technological skills, poor technology education, assumptions and problems with the Net Generation (also known as digital natives ) and the overwhelming problem of technical illiteracy. Summary of Findings While its exact origins are unknown, the term Digital Divide" "was first noticeably introduced [in America] by author Dinty Moore and by columnist Amy Harmon of the LA Times (Plumb, 2008). During the 1990 s, President Clinton brought national attention to the issue when he reviewed a report from the National Telecommunications and Information Administration, stating that there was a growing gap between those with access to [Information Age tools] and those without (Clinton, 1999). Unhappy with the report s results, Clinton began to make some important changes, mainly within schools. He stated that the connectivity to information tools in schools and the community should be monitored across the country, in order to keep a close eye on the problem. He also designated certain departments and agencies to work with the private sectors, and encouraged grants to be given to those schools falling through the gap. In this manner, he enabled more Americans to have access to essential technology and the internet. Through the grants and programs that Clinton initiated, a large dent was made in the divide caused by socioeconomic barriers. Twelve years later, the majority of schools and libraries own and grant open access to necessary technology. However, new portions of the Digital Divide are becoming more and more negatively noticeable in schools and libraries. Plumb s article provides a succinctly comprehensive overview of these debilitating issues, and Ferro s article adds to the overview by defining the consequences of the new multi-dimensional and multi-perspective parts of the Digital Divide.

4 Christine Gingrich 4 Many of these big issues revolve around the Net Generation. Stoerger s article aptly describes the Net Generation as people born between 1980 and 1994, who have grown up with technology and are comfortable using it. However, because they have been somewhat immersed in technology, they learn differently from previous generations, meaning that education must fundamentally change to meet the needs of these digital natives (Bennett, 2008). Asselin s article also points out that the members of the Net Generation aren t always digitally or technically literate; while the Net Generation has access to technology, they don t always know how to use it accurately. Much of society assumes that these students already know the right skills to fully use technology, which can create frustration since many the students skills are less than optimal. A study found that there seemed to be no correlation between computer skills, access to [information technology] and experience in use (Fourie, 2006). To address this important problem, educators need to take an active part in the promotion of information literacy pressing for its inclusion in the school curriculum and in teacher training (Huang, 2006). Librarians and teachers need survey their patrons and test their students to figure out what skills they are lacking, and then provide classes that effectively teach them what they need to know. On that note, educators themselves need to update their own information literacy skills, since even when schools [want] to provide this bridge for their [have not] students, their teachers may not possess proficient [technical literacy] skills and knowledge about how best to integrate technology into the curriculum (Hohlfeld, 2008). Mardis article regards the often overlooked fact that the technological ideas teachers and librarians learn during their education become fairly outdated by the time they become full-time educators, and classes meant to update their literacy are not always constructive or fruitful. Therefore it is crucial that active educators actively pursue life-long learning by taking comprehensive classes on technical literacy and new technology. Also, students studying to become educators need to be informed of these issues. A study covered in Overall s article showed that Library and Information Science students working in various types of libraries had a better grasp on the idea of the Digital Divide, and also gained a better ideas of how to improve upon the problems by experiencing them firsthand. When these students graduate, they will be better prepared to deal with the divide in the libraries they operate.

5 Christine Gingrich 5 Another hugely important issue deals with patrons with disabilities in schools, higher education, and public libraries. These people are strongly affected by Digital Divide because they can't use everyday technology properly, and therefore have low access and poor technical literacy, as stated in Moisey s article. This development has resulted in the Digital Divide between disabled students and their nondisabled peers regarding their participation in computerassisted courses (Konur, 2007). Librarians and teachers should be aware of these barriers and do their best to accommodate these patrons in order to reduce this portion of the Digital Divide. The most important issue for current librarians and educators is to play a vital role in making information accessible, bridging the digital divide or at least, diminishing it via their information services (Aqili, 2007). Since technology is such a vital part of everyday life, it is essential that all librarians and educators educate themselves on the Digital Divide and strive to provide access and technical literacy to every patron. Each of these portions of the Digital Divide is thoroughly covered within the informative articles in the following bibliography. It is hoped that the reader will more fully understand the background and current issues of the Digital Divide through these articles, and therefore be fully prepared to join the fight to bridge the Digital Divide.

6 Christine Gingrich 6 Bibliography Entry 1 Asselin, M and Ray, D. (2008). Towards a transformative pedagogy for school libraries 2.0. School Libraries Worldwide, 14(2), Abstract: As more and more educators face the impact of Web 2.0, and as we see emerging what could be called a Learning 2.0 environment, it becomes urgent to extend teaching to meet the literacy and learning needs of the Net Generation. These 'new' learners and their expanding literacy needs have major implications for current models of school library programs which are largely focused on reading promotion and information literacy skills. We join others in recognizing the need to critically question long held tenets of school libraries and to create a new research-based vision that will accord with the current economic and social directions driving educational change. This paper contributes to that process by proposing a framework for the work of school libraries in new times based on research in new literacies, today's learners, and emerging concepts of knowledge. Annotation: This article focuses on the students who grew up with technology, aka the Net Generation. These students are comfortable with using technology and have access to it, but they don t necessarily have the information literacy skills to properly find information, causing academic issues. Extensive studies show the characteristics of these students, what they need to learn in terms of information literacy skills, and how they can be taught these things in the library in order to cut down on this part of the digital divide. Scholarly or Referenced status: I researched School Libraries Worldwide and found it to be a scholarly international journal focusing on issues in school libraries. This article is recent, has an extensive list of recent references, and is written in a scholarly way by authors with doctorate degrees. Entry 2 Aqili, S. and Moghaddam, A. (2007). Bridging the digital divide: The role of librarians and information professionals in the third millennium. The Electronic Library, 26(2),

7 Christine Gingrich 7 Abstract: Rethinking the digital divide, librarians must redesign and redefine their service menu for their customers through thinking functionally. They also need to review the various IT devices and information services available and examine which can be employed to present a more effective library service. In addition, policy-makers should consider the vital role that librarians can play in the realization of knowledge-based society and sustainable development. Annotation: A summary of current issues is followed by a comprehensive list of practical suggestions, possible solutions, and general skills librarians should have in order to lessen the strength of the Digital Divide. The suggestions emphasize collaborating with others, making use of ILL, creating technology expert positions, and taking a leadership role in providing access and teaching digital literacy. Scholarly or Referenced status: This article comes from The Electronic Library, which is an international peer-reviewed journal focusing on libraries in the digital age. It s a few years old, but the topic and results are still relevant to current problems. Entry 3 Bennett, S., Maton, K. and Kervin, L. (2008). The digital natives debate: A critical review of the evidence. British Journal of Educational Technology, 39, Abstract: The idea that a new generation of students is entering the education system has excited recent attention among educators and education commentators. Termed digital natives or the Net generation, these young people are said to have been immersed in technology all their lives, imbuing them with sophisticated technical skills and learning preferences for which traditional education is unprepared. Grand claims are being made about the nature of this generational change and about the urgent necessity for educational reform in response. A sense of impending crisis pervades this debate. However, the actual situation is far from clear. In this paper, the authors draw on the fields of education and sociology to analyse the digital natives debate. The paper presents and questions the main claims made about digital natives and analyses the nature of the debate itself. We argue that rather than being empirically and theoretically informed, the debate can be likened to an academic form of a moral panic. We propose that a more measured and disinterested approach is now required to investigate digital natives and their implications for education.

8 Christine Gingrich 8 Annotation: This article focuses on the idea that the "Net Generation" needs a new type of education, owing to the fact that they are already acquainted with technology through schools, libraries, and home life. Students felt disinterested and blocked in by teachers defining what they could and couldn't use during their limited time using computers in school. However, students didn't always possess adequate IT literacy skills to find what they needed. The article states that the lack of IT literacy skills and the new way in which these students learn are not as devastating as some may say, but they do exist and should be dealt with. Scholarly or Referenced status: The article is fairly recent, relevant, written by a doctoral candidate, has many references, and is from an online peer-reviewed journal which focuses on international educational and training technology. The journal is used in many databases, including INSPEC and EBSCO. Entry 4 Clinton, W. (1999). Public papers of william j. clinton - Memorandum on narrowing the digital divide. World Book Online Advanced. Abstract: Narrowing the Digital Divide: Creating Opportunities for All Americans in the Information Age Annotation: This short but important memorandum was written by President William J. Clinton when he first called attention to the Digital Divide. He outlined the basic definition of the Digital Divide and focused on the main issues caused by the Digital Divide at the time. This historical piece records his intent to close the gap, as well as the ideas and actions he wanted to take. Search Strategy: I decided to search the World Book Online s Advanced encyclopedia, which contains hundreds of historical primary documents and presidential items such as this one. Scholarly or Referenced status: The memorandum was written by President Clinton. Entry 5 Ferro, E., Gil-Garcia, N., and Ramon, J. (2011). The role of IT literacy in defining digital divide policy needs. Government Information Quarterly, 28(1), Abstract: This article expands our current understanding of the digital divide by examining differences in individuals' IT skills acquisition. In the last two decades scholars have gradually refined the conceptualization of the digital divide, moving from a dichotomous model mainly

9 Christine Gingrich 9 based on access, to a multidimensional model accounting for differences in usage levels and actors' perspectives. Digital divide views tend to focus on groups of users and user characteristics and focus less on different processes of use. As models of the digital divide became more complex, research focused on deepening the understanding of demographic and socioeconomic differences between adopters and non-adopters...we argue that these preliminary results are a useful starting point for the design of more effective and sophisticated digital inclusion policies. Annotation: According to this article, there are three types of digital divides: the haves and have nots in the common sense; the multi-dimensional view where access to technology is a given but IT literacy is poor; and the multi-perspective take, which is the view that different groups and cultures only use technology for certain things, so their IT literacy is one-sided. The studies also found that the elderly and females have smaller number of ways to access the Internet, and students have more access to technology, while the average adult has less. Also, while most users teach themselves to find information, they only use technology sporadically and therefore don t have good skills. Fully understanding these issues is essential to dealing with the Digital Divide. Scholarly or Referenced status: The article is very recent, relevant, and hails from the scholarly Government Information Quarterly, a refereed journal which focuses on technology and communication. Entry 6 Fourie, I, and Bothma, T. (2006). Addressing the digital divide in teaching information retrieval. The Electronic Library, 24(4), Abstract: The purpose of this article is to help students to move from ICT access to knowledge sharing.an overview of the literature on information literacy skills and the digital divide, an analysis of information seeking research.findings - The digital divide concerns more than just ICT access and information skills. Individual commitment, group work, and intellectual and academic support from the institution might contribute to bringing people to higher levels of knowledge generation and communication.the proposed model allows for higher levels of knowledge sharing and should help society to bridge the digital divide. Annotation: This article states that, to bridge the digital divide, we need to "increase the spectrum of skills we address." Since students and people come from diverse backgrounds, not all have the same skills, even if they all grew up with open access to technology. Students had issues with

10 Christine Gingrich 10 understanding plagiarism, composition, search strategies, and what constitutes good sources and how to use them. New teaching approaches for information retrieval should be adapted in order to thoroughly teach these things to all students; some will learn slower than others, but these issues need to be addressed. One way may be to have students work in groups, so that those who have poor skills can learn from both their teacher and their fellow peers. Scholarly or Referenced status: The article is fairly recent, but very relevant. It has many references, and is from the peer-reviewed journal The Electronic Library, which is an international journal focusing on implementing technology in libraries. Entry 7 Hohlfeld, T., Ritzhaupt, A., Barron, A., Kemker, K. (2008). Examining the digital divide in K-12 public schools: Four-year trends for supporting ICT literacy in florida. Computers & Education, 51(4), Abstract: While there is evidence that access to computers in schools has increased, there remain questions about whether low socio-economic status (SES) schools provide students with equitable supports for achieving information communication technology (ICT) literacy. Multilevel models for repeated measures analysis were used to compare models for predicting trends on nine different aspects of school technology integration. Results show statistically significant differences between high and low SES schools at every level in terms of student access to software, student use of software, teacher use of software, and the level of technology support. This research provides evidence of the existence of the digital divide among Florida s K-12 schools. Annotation: This article provides an in-depth look at the effect of the digital divide on teachers and students within a few of Florida s schools, including a pyramid structure for determining the level of digital divide within a school, where hardware, software, and the Internet are the base level, use of technology by teachers and students are the second level, and empowerment of students is the top level. Scholarly or Referenced status: The article is fairly recent, relevant, and is from the peerreviewed journal Computers and Education, which contains articles on improving education instruction through the use of computers

11 Christine Gingrich 11 Entry 8 Huang, J; and Russell, S. (2006). The digital divide and academic achievement. The Electronic Library, 24(2), Abstract: This paper aims to find out the degrees of students' access to computers and the internet, and to explore the relationship between technology accessibility and academic achievement...the findings show that the digital divide still exists, cutting through various socioeconomic factors, and that the relationship between technology accessibility and academic achievement may also exist, although it is very much complicated by other compounding factors, such as the subjects of learning, the uses of technology, and socioeconomic conditions. It is hoped that the findings of this research can help policy makers, school administrators and teachers better understand the issues of digital divide and the consequences of technology use in schools and beyond. Annotation: This is an excellent, in-depth article that covers the basic definition of the digital divide before delving into the issues of the digital divide in schools. It was determined through research in three Oklahoma schools that on top of the socioeconomic factors already causing a divide, students who had decent access to technology and the Internet through the schools still didn t make the best use of the available technology. The article suggests that school and public librarians are in a prime spot to help close the gap, and need to take an active part in the promotion of information literacy in their own communities, pressing for its inclusion in the school curriculum, and in teacher training. Scholarly or Referenced status: I researched The Electronic Library and found it to be an international journal focusing on implementing technology in information environments, which has been referenced often and appears in many databases. This particular article is fairly recent, has many references, and is peer-reviewed. Entry 9 Konur, O. (2007). Computer-assisted teaching and assessment of disabled students in higher education: The interface between academic standards and disability rights. Journal of computer assisted learning, 23, Abstract: Computer-assisted teaching and assessment has become a regular feature across many areas of the curriculum in higher education courses around the world in recent years.

12 Christine Gingrich 12 following a successful precedent in Davis v. Southeastern Community College (1979), the opponents of disability rights have consistently argued that making disability adjustments for disabled students to participate in computer-assisted courses would undermine academic and professional standards and these laws have resulted in a culture of fear among the staff. Annotation: Problems encountered by students with disabilities in higher education systems are discussed here. Their inability to use certain types of technology contributes to the digital divide, so adjustments need to be made. However, not all universities are willing to make the adjustments, worsening the digital divide. Scholarly or Referenced status: The article is fairly recent, relevant to the topic, and is from the international, peer-reviewed Journal of computer assisted learning, which collects current articles on information technology. Entry 10 Mardis, M, Hoffman, E., and Marshall, T. (2008). A new framework for understanding educational digital library use: Re-examining digital divides in U.S. schools. International Journal on Digital Libraries, 9(1), Abstract: Despite their decade of deployment, educational digital libraries have not achieved sustained use in elementary and secondary schools in the United States. Barriers to accessing the Internet and computers have been widely targeted by myriad initiatives, but efforts aimed at bridging this first-level digital divide have not led to increased use of the Internet and digital library resources in U.S. classrooms. In fact, such programs have revealed additional divides that affect educators use. This paper examines the additional digital divide levels and proposes a new framework for understanding technology innovation in schools that can improve development and outreach approaches by digital library developers. Annotation: This article considers four parts to the digital divide: haves and have nots, social and cultural issues, ready access but poor IT literacy, and personal wants and needs, which is an understated factor that makes a big impact. It considers the fact that the technology used to teach librarians and educators often starts to become outdated by the time they become full-time educators. Even though technology workshops are required for educators to update their skills, these workshops aren t always productive or useful. The article discusses issues such as lack of

13 Christine Gingrich 13 leadership, various policies, and the social views of the school and community, which also affect the individual digital divides within schools. Scholarly or Referenced status: The article is recent, relevant, has many references, and is from an international peer-reviewed journal that focuses on digital issues and advances. Entry 11 Moisey, S. (2007). The inclusive libraries initiative: Enhancing the access of persons with developmental disabilities to information and communication technology. The Developmental Disabilities Bulletin, 35(1), Abstract: Through assistive technology, individualized support, and community-based activities, the Inclusive Libraries Initiative is increasing the capacity of rural libraries in Northeast Alberta to attract and serve patrons with disabilities, particularly developmental disabilities. Local public libraries are important natural supports for adults with developmental disabilities and others, providing access to web-based information and communication technology (ICT) as well as to conventional library offerings. Enhanced access to ICT is an important step in helping individuals with developmental disabilities to increase their ability to obtain firsthand information, broaden their social support network through the use of communication technologies, and bridge the "digital divide" that prevents them from full inclusion in our knowledge-based society. Annotation: This comprehensive, plain-spoken article points out the need to enhance accessibility to meet the needs of those with disabilities. An inclusive libraries initiative had librarians take training in order to increase their knowledge and skill in reaching out, and also added adaptations such as hydraulic tables and Zoomtext to libraries to help reach out to individuals with mental and physical disabilities. This article is unique in that it follows the efforts of the Inclusive Libraries Initiative and documents the successful changes that helped patrons with disabilities and narrowed the digital divide. Scholarly or Referenced status: The article is relevant to the topic, is fairly recent, and is from the peer-reviewed journal Developmental Disabilities Bulletin, which procures articles about education and services for people with handicaps and learning disabilities.

14 Christine Gingrich 14 Entry 12 Plumb, T. (2008). Challenges and opportunities for electronic resources (ER) librarians in facing down the digital divide, Collection Management, 32(3), Abstract: The electronic resources (ER) librarian has a social responsibility to be knowledgeable about the digital divide. Discourse on the digital divide began in the mid-1990s and continues today. Data analysis reveals that divides still exist, particularly when considering income, education, region, disability, age, and race. Librarians face many challenges to take on the digital divide. These challenges include issues of access, content, technical literacy, privacy, civic participation, education, employment, non-use, and political debate. Yet for each challenge, there is an opportunity for the ER librarians to thrive while they face down the digital divide. Annotation: This plain-spoken article covers a comprehensive overview of the digital divide, explaining the origins of the term as best as possible. It provides a brief overview of the important divides of income, education, region, disability, age, race, and gender. It focuses on the current major issues of the digital divide; providing access to technology, relevant content, and promoting and teaching technical literacy, as well as delving into the government s affect on the topic. It also covers a study on non-users: why they don t use the Internet at all and how to address the issue. Scholarly or Referenced status: Collection Management is a refereed journal that focuses on library collection management and technology. The article is fairly recent and very relevant to diminishing the Digital Divide. Entry 13 Stoerger, S. The digital melting pot: Bridging the digital native-immigrant divide. First Monday (Online), 14(7). Abstract: Educational technology advocates claim today s students are technologically savvy content creators and consumers whose mindset differs from previous generations. The digital native digital immigrant metaphor has been used to make a distinction between those with technology skills and those without. Metaphors such as this one are useful when having initial conversations about an emerging phenomenon, but over time, they become inaccurate and dangerous. Thus, this paper proposes a new metaphor, the digital melting pot, which supports the idea of integrating rather than segregating the natives and the immigrants.

15 Christine Gingrich 15 Annotation: Here we cover the common misconception that all young people are "prolific users of technology." Known as the "Net Generation, they are constantly using technology, though they don t fully understand it. Many programs aimed at improving these issues merely introduce students to technology they already know, as compared to teaching them how to use it properly. The article encourages educators to teach digital skills rather than new technology. Scholarly or Referenced status: The article is on topic, written by a doctoral candidate, has many references, and is from an online peer-reviewed journal which focuses solely on Internet issues and topics. I certify that: This assignment is entirely my own work. I have not quoted the words of any other person from a printed source or website without indicating what has been quoted and providing an appropriate citation. I have not submitted this assignment to satisfy the requirements of any other course. Signature Christine Gingrich Date March 13, 2011 Christine Gingrich, All Rights Reserved.