Glossary 253 Glossary Itokawa Asteroid is one of the smallest ever celestial object with around 600meters length and a surface covered with boulders and craters. Konstantin E. Tsiolkovsky's 16 Stages of Space Exploration are the following (I) creation of rocket airplanes with wings, (II) progressively increasing the speed and altitude of these airplanes, (III) production of real rockets-without wings, (IV) ability to land on the surface of the sea, (V) reaching escape velocity (about 8 Km/ second), and the first flight into Earth orbit, (VI) lengthening rocket flight times in space, (VII) experimental use of plants to make an artificial atmosphere in spaceships, (VIII) using pressurized space suits for activity outside of spaceships, (IX) making orbiting greenhouses for plants, (X) constructing large orbital habitats around the Earth, (XI) using solar radiation to grow food, to heat space quarters, and for transport throughout the Solar System, (XII) colonization of the asteroid belt, (XIII) colonization of the entire Solar System and beyond, (XIV) achievement of individual and social perfection, (XV) overcrowding of the Solar System and the colonization of the Milky Way (the Galaxy), (XVI) the Sun begins to die and the people remaining in the Solar System's population go to other. Key Performance Indicators (KPI) are indicators used for assessing and comparing the success of the results from the different projects during different project phases of market evolution Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) is a NASA program that aims at encouraging the development of technologies and competencies that will encourage the development of commercial human space-flight services. Planetary resource utilization refers to lunar and planetary resource utilisation, such as extraction, processing, and manufacturing of useful materials (e.g.
254 Glossary propellants etc.) and system elements. For example Helium-3 for fusion fuel, ferrous materials for construction or platinum group materials. Intelligent Self-Sufficient Robotic Systems are systems such as high mobile, dexterous and autonomous robotics (i.e., advanced versions of conventional rovers ) as well as UAV-like vehicles, system, etc. Taykonaut is a Chinese cosmonaut or astronaut Interoperable systems, processes and technologies commonly interfacing between each other. S/W solutions, such as Open Software solutions can contribute to increasing the interoperability between various space craft sub-systems. Commercialization of space technology does not involve the transfer of technology ownership right to the user or the commercial operator, but just the user pays a certain fee for renting the infrastructure. Commercial companies can use space technology as an utility. They can keep the IPR rights from their projects and also have the option to buy marketing rights. The rights can be different types, full rights for 100% investment or shared ones with other companies that are part of the project. Marginal cost pricing sets up the prices for certain services based on marginal costs which are usually the incurred costs by agencies for flying a commercial payloads to the ISS Institutional customers are national and intergovernmental civil space (and defence), meteorological agencies (i.e. ESA, NASA, EUMETSAT, NOAA). Commercial customers in the space industry are commercial satellite operators and launch service providers. Launch service operators are responsible for the integration and operation of commercial launch services to institutional and commercial customers. Launch service providers are companies such as United Launch Alliance (ULA), Arianespace, and International Launch Services or Sea Launch. Suppliers in the space industry are system integrators, subsystem suppliers, equipment suppliers, as well as service and ground support companies. System integrators are the companies that have the competencies and knowledge to design, develop and integrate a complete satellite. These are companies such as Lockheed Martin and Boeing in the USA, and EADS Astrium and Thales Alenia Space (TAS) in Europe. Subsystem suppliers are companies that design, develop and produce spacebased subsystems (i.e. solid booster, solar generator, engine, etc.). Equipment suppliers are companies that develop and produce equipment for the successful integration of space systems and of subsystem spacecraft levels (solar cells, EEE components, valves, mechanical parts, software suppliers). Services and ground support companies are companies that provide ground system design, development, manufacturing, operations of non-commercial systems
Glossary 255 (including raw data sales from EO satellites), and engineering services (ASD- Eurospace (2008)) Economies of Scale exist when production of a certain product or service is increased due to high demand and then product or services costs of production fall. Economies of Scope are created when the production of a certain good is less expensive when produced jointly with other products. GMES Sentinels are the next generatation of Earth Observation missions. Sentinel-1 is a SAR radar for the provision of land and ocean services, Sentinel-2 is a high resolution optical imaging missions. While, Sentinel-3 has optical and infrared radiometers for ocean and global land monitoring. Sentinel 4 and Sentinel 5 will be for atmospheric composition monitoring. Nascent phase of market evolution is when new markets are created, first-time buyers appear and markets are strongly regulated by governments. Frenzied phase of market evolution is when markets start to expand and profits raise. Turbulent phase of market evolution can be defined as the one during which profits are at their highest and there is a stable group of competitors. Mature phase of market evolution is when profits of companies start to reduce and government withdraw from the commercialization process and consolidation processes of companies. ISS markets are classified by research and development (R&D) and the emerging ones. R&D ISS markets are classified by biotechnology, health, nutrition, new materials and environment ones Emerging ISS markets are ones such as education, sponsorship, broadcasting, space-flight and infrastructure. Space Based Solar Power (SBSP) is generated when a satellite is launched in LEO and collects solar energy, that is converted into electricity by photovoltaic solar panels and then is transmitted the energy to ground based stations through microwaves or laser waves. Competitiveness measures the ability of a company to sell and supply goods and services in a certain industry. Oligopoly is described as a market structure in which there are a few players, that sell homogeneous products and services and there is high market-entry barriers. The Oligopoly market structure incorporates different oligopoly theories, such as the cartel, price leadership theory, the game theory, the prisoner s dilemma and the kinked demand theories. Space industry competitiveness index (SCI) measures three major dimensions in the space industry: government, human capital and industry, in several space
256 Glossary countries (e.g. USA, Europe, Russia, Japan, Canada, India, China, South Korea, Israel, Brazil). European Space Agency (ESA) prime objective is to encourage European space industry competitiveness and, at the same time, maintain the fair return of national investment in regional space companies. ESA is managed by 18 ESA member states and each member state funds the activities of the agency. Member states allocate funding to ESA programs based on their R&D needs and national competencies and later a part of this budget is allocated back to the national space companies in the form of contracts. ESA national delegations make sure that the interests of their companies are protected and materialised in contracts. ESA geographical-return rule is used when the value of contracts granted to national space companies corresponds to the percentage of ESA member states' investment in the space agency (ESA, 2009). The fair return rule is calculated based on an industrial return coefficient that calculates the ratio between the ESA share of a country in the weighted value of contracts (ESA, 2009) Space patents are the product of inventions that companies make using spacebased technologies for future interplanetary missions. Space debris is defined as any man-made object in earth orbit that is not deployed by any working systems Kessler Syndrome is a scenario, proposed by NASA consultant Donald J. Kessler (Kessler, 1999), in which the volume of space debris in Low Earth Orbit is so high that objects in orbit are frequently struck by debris, creating even more debris and a greater risk of further impacts. The implication of this scenario is that the escalating amount of debris in orbit could eventually render space exploration, and even the use of satellites, too prone to loss to be feasible for many generations. With a large enough collision (such as one between a space station and a defunct satellite), the amount of cascading debris could be enough to render Low Earth Orbit essentially impassable. Scarcity is the condition in which human wants are greater than the resources available to satisfy them. Space economics is a science concerned with the description and analysis of the design, development, production, distribution and use of products and services, derived by the use of space-based technologies. Interplanetary economics is a sub category of space economics and deals, with the description and analysis of the design, development, production, distribution and use of space-based products and services, used on Earth or celestial bodies (i.e. Moon, Mars, asteroids) and also human-made artificial spacecraft, stations and transfer vehicles.
Glossary 257 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) shows the percentage that national governments invest in space exploration. Gross Domestic Product measures the total market value of all final goods and services produced annually within a country. GDP expenditure approach totals the spending of the final users of goods and services. GDP is calculated by totalling consumption (C), investment (I), government purchases (G) and next exports (EX IM). Space products can be spacecraft, including satellites, and suborbital and spacecraft launch vehicles and parts of balloons, dirigibles, and spacecraft not elsewhere specified. Or any products which are tested or produced on board a space station and marked as space product. FAA economic impacts are quantifiable interactions between consumers and producers that result from a change in final demand for a product or service. These impacts track the financial transactions that occur throughout the production of a good or service, and they are measured in terms of increased economic activities, earnings and jobs. Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) contributes to the identification of project s options, the definition of the investment required and the definition of expenditures groups and stakeholders. CBA is a widely used in the aviation industry and supports private investors, trans-national stakeholders, service providers and aircraft operators to understand the benefits and the resources they need to commit to a project. Direct economic benefits are increased employment, revenues from sales, new markets, increased cost savings and technology reliability and interoperability. Technology reliability also incorporates safety. Indirect economic benefits are considered free publicity, technology innovation, international partnerships and environment protection.