Question 1: What is the definition of art? Answer 1: Art means different things to different people. Art is what results from a person's creativity and traditionally includes painting, drawing, sculpture, architecture, dance, music, theater, literature, and philosophy. The definition of art depends upon the theory of aesthetics, which is the study of the nature of beauty and art. An object or image that may be beautiful to one, may be less beautiful to someone else. Many times, a person's definition of beauty or art depends upon his or her cultural influences. Leonardo's masterpiece, Mona Lisa, is considered by most people to be an excellent example of art. However, many people do not find her beautiful. Certainly, she does not fit the Western ideal of beauty; compared to a runway model, the Mona Lisa is very plain and a bit fleshy. Her plucked eyebrows, high forehead, and enigmatic expression may have been the height of fashion in Leonardo's time, but these characteristics are dated today. This is an example of society's influence on individual ideas of art and beauty. Most people have been culturally conditioned to believe the Mona Lisa is a beautiful piece of art, but when they mentally conjure her image, they often change their minds. Art, like beauty, is "in the eye of the beholder." Nonetheless, certain works are considered fine art. Artists like Michelangelo, Leonardo, and Picasso, all painters and/or sculptors, are artistic masters. Playwrights, writers, and philosophers are also fine artists. Question 2: What are some ways of looking at a work of art? Answer 2: When you examine a work of art with the goal of discussing it, you are analyzing, or critiquing, the work. Criticism often has negative connotations, but it is simply a method of looking at something (e.g., an idea, an object, or a written work) and examining it piece by piece. In this class, you will utilize two specific kinds of criticism: formal criticism and contextual criticism. When using formal criticism, a critic examines the formal qualities of the art. A formal quality is a basic form or structure in the work. The formal elements of a painting include the line, form, color, texture, and subject matter. When using this approach, the critic discusses the appearance of the work or the elements that are immediately apparent. Formal criticism is used to analyze many genres of art. When criticizing a work of literature, the critic may discuss the format of 1
the work (e.g., poetry or prose), the characters, the language used, and the plot. Contextual criticism, on the other hand, involves looking at the work of art in a larger context. A critic will question what was happening around the work at the time it was created (e.g., war, famine, disease, or economic depression). A critic will also question what was happening in the artist's life (e.g., mental illness, alcoholism, drug abuse, or death of a loved one). All of these factors contribute to the final product. By utilizing this type of criticism, a critic can explore dimensions that are not readily apparent to a general audience. Question 3: What are the first examples of art? Answer 3: The earliest known examples of art were created in the Paleolithic Period, or Old Stone Age, although the dates are often disputed. The earliest known type of art was cave paintings, dating to about 40,000 BCE. Some of the best examples of cave paintings were found in Lascaux, France and date from approximately 15,000 BCE. Part of the cave prominently features representations of bulls and is referred to as the Hall of the Bulls. Cave paintings follow a standard form with images of large animals mixed with representations of humans, either whole bodies or simple handprints. They sometimes include geometric shapes as well. The earliest cave paintings were created by drawing in soft clay affixed to the walls of the cave. Later, sharp tools were used to lightly carve designs into the stone. Much later, early man began to use paint made of natural materials, such as hematite and juniper (Cave Paintings, n.d.). Most cave paintings are limited to only a few colors (e.g., red, black, and brown). Question 4: Who were the Sumerians? Answer 4: The Sumerians, one of the first recognizable cultures, appeared in Mesopotamia around 3000 BCE. They were known primarily for their law system and their method of writing. The law system, or judicial code, of the Sumerians was called the "Code of Hammurabi." Hammurabi, a great Sumerian ruler, made the capital of Babylon one of the first major cities in the world. He devised a list of rules for governing his people, had them inscribed on an 8-foot-tall black stone monument, and 2
placed it in public view. This monument now resides in the Musée du Louvre, Paris. The Sumerians are also noted for their invented writing style, known as cuneiform. Cuneiform writing was a system where conical, or wedge-shaped, instruments were pressed into wet clay tablets to form words, and the wet tablets were placed in the sun to dry. Fragments of these ancient tablets have been found and deciphered by modern scholars. The Sumerians left evidence of the earliest known recorded story, Gilgamesh. This epic poem tells the story of Gilgamesh, a king who was two-thirds god and one-third human and his battles against an equally strong wild man known as Enkidu. Question 5: What types of art did the Egyptians produce? Answer 5: The primary art form of the Egyptians was sculpture. Egyptian sculpture has two primary qualities: It is cubic and frontal. Cubic because it retains the shape of the original block of stone and frontal because it is viewed from the front. Egyptian sculpture is very stiff, immobile, and shows very little motion. The sculptures were often made of stone and painted to look more realistic. Stone was the most readily available and most frequently used material, but sculptors also employed wood, clay, metal, and ivory. Aside from sculpture, another very significant Egyptian art form was architecture. Over 100 pyramids exist in Egypt, but the most commonly discussed are the pyramids on the Giza Plateau, near Cairo. Each of these pyramids is dedicated to a specific ruler and functioned as his or her burial place. The shape of Egyptian pyramids was based upon a sacred, pointed stone called the benben, which symbolized the sun's rays. According to ancient Egyptian writings, the pharaohs ascended to the heavens on the backs of sunbeams (Explore the Pyramids, n.d.). When a pharaoh died, his body was preserved using a mummification process where the corpse was embalmed and wrapped tightly with strips of linen. The Egyptians believed that the deceased might need his or her worldly possessions for the afterlife. Riches, furniture, and even food were buried with the ruler in the hopes that it could be useful in the afterlife. Question 6: Who were the Minoans? Answer 6: 3
The Minoan civilization appeared around 1700 BCE on the island of Crete, off the coast of mainland Greece. The Minoans were a somewhat unusual civilization because they left no evidence of a military. Another unique element of Minoan culture was the fact that they worshipped female, not male, deities. The Minoans were a society based upon trade, primarily in tin and saffron (Ancient Greek Civilizations, n.d.). The Minoans are known primarily for their palace at Knossos. The palace has a central courtyard, four wings radiating outward, and resembles a labyrinth, or maze. The interior is covered with fresco paintings depicting scenes of nature, religious rituals, and everyday life. The colors used are mainly blues, reds, and yellows, although black and white are used. The Minoan culture was somewhat short-lived, and scholars dispute what brought the eventual end to this group of people. Fifty years before the disappearance of the Minoans, a massive volcano erupted on the island of Thera, not far from Crete. This could have been a major factor in the weakening of the culture, which led to the conquer of the Minoans by other groups. No one, however, knows for sure what exactly happened to them and research continues today. Question 7: Who were the Mycenaeans? Answer 7: The Mycenaeans were a mysterious group of people who settled on the Greek mainland between 3000-2000 BCE. Modern scholars know almost nothing about Mycenaean religion, language, or culture. However, we do know that the Mycenaeans were a society oriented around war. The Mycenaeans were, for centuries, thought to be a fictional society due to their position in ancient Greek literature. The ancient poet Homer, in the Iliad, tells the story of how the Mycenaean soldiers constructed a giant wooden horse with the purpose of tricking the Trojans. The Mycenaeans bring the Trojan horse to the city of Troy and leave it outside the city gate. The Trojans, not knowing what to think of the horse, decide to grant it entrance to the city without realizing that Mycenaean soldiers are hidden inside. When night fell, the Mycenaeans climbed out of the horse, opened the city gate to the rest of the Mycenaean army, and conquered the Trojans. In the late 1800s, archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann excavated both the cities of Mycenae and Troy, proving that, in fact, the Mycenaeans existed. Mycenaean art was highly influenced by the art of the Minoans. Both cultures 4
employed fresco painting and metalworking as their main artistic formats. The Mycenaeans are known for their Lion Gate at Mycenae. A fortified wall surrounded Mycenae to prevent invasion, and the Lion Gate served as the western entrance into the city. The Lion Gate is a classic example of post and lintel architecture where a lintel, or crossbeam, is laid across the tops of two posts, or vertical structures. The post and lintel technique is the simplest method of creating an opening in a structure. Question 8: What are the three stages of Greek culture? Answer 8: Greek history is commonly divided into three stages: the Archaic, the classical, and the Hellenistic. The Archaic Period dates from about 800-500 BCE. The classical period dates from roughly 500-323 BCE. The Hellenistic Period dates from approximately 323-146 BCE (Ancient Greece Civilizations, n.d.). Each phase of Greek culture is characterized by different approaches to art. During the Archaic Phase, sculptors created works that were stiff, immobile, and highly influenced by Egyptian sculpture. Most of these sculptures are known as kouros, or the female counterpart kore, statues. A kouros statue is an idealized representation of a young boy, not modeled after a particular person. Kouros figures stand with their backs perfectly straight, arms at their sides, fists clenched, and the left foot slightly forward. Another characteristic of the kouros is the "archaic smile," a very slight upturning of the lips. On the cusp of the classical period and a forbearer to classical sculpture is the Kritios Boy sculpture. Kritios Boy, a sculpture of an idealized young man, differs from the kouros figures because he has lifelike anatomy and a more realistic pose. Kritios Boy exhibits the contrapposto stance, which is a much more natural way of holding the body. Contrapposto, or counterpoise, involves standing in a manner where the weight of the body is placed on one foot, the other leg is relaxed, the hips shift vertically, one shoulder dips, and the spine forms a slight curve. After the creation of Kritios Boy, sculptors concentrated on showing realistic body motion, flowing drapery, and emotions that are believable on the faces of sculptures. The classical sculptors exemplify this new realism of movement but still ideal bodies. A few examples of classical sculpture are the Discobolus (Discus Thrower), Apoxymenos (The Scraper), and Doryphorus (The Spear Bearer). The Hellenistic, or "high" Period of Greek history, is known for its artists' 5
technical skill. Some sculptures from the Hellenistic period include the Laocoon and His Sons, Nike of Samothrace, and Dying Gaul. Each of these works shows the artists' virtuosity in showing true human anatomy and movement. Question 9: What is the Parthenon? Answer 9: The Parthenon is a Greek temple built in homage to the Olympian gods and goddesses. It sits high upon the Acropolis, the high part of the city of Athens and overlooks the city below. Built in 447-438 BCE by Ictinos and Callicrates, the Parthenon is a Doric temple made of stone. Steps surround the temple, and its interior, or naos, once housed a 40-foot statue of Athena, the patron goddess of Athens. The Parthenon was architecturally innovative for its time. Ictinos and Callicrates used a technique called entasis, or swelling, to counteract the human eye's tendency to see vertical elements as slightly sagging toward the bottom. By increasing the circumference of each column around the middle by 7 inches, the architects made the columns appear perfectly vertical and of uniform thickness. Additionally, the space between the columns at their tops is narrower than the space at their bottoms. This technique was employed to make the columns appear absolutely straight and perpendicular. The Parthenon was once covered in relief sculptures depicting the gods of antiquity. The eastern pediment, the triangular area under the roof of the temple, once showed the birth of Athena along with a figural grouping of the Three Graces, known as the Three Goddesses or The Fates. A group of these sculptures is collectively known as the Elgin Marbles. Thomas Bruce, the earl of Elgin, was the British ambassador to Constantinople in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Bruce believed that he would be doing a great service to Britain if he could expose its people to art of the ancients. He ordered much of the sculpture of the Parthenon removed and sent it to England in the early 1800s. Since 1939, these sculptures have been housed at the British Museum in London, and there is a battle between the Greek and British governments regarding whether the sculptures should be returned to their rightful home (Parthenon Elgin Marbles, n.d.). Question 10: What is the Colosseum? Answer 10: The Colosseum, also spelled Coliseum, is an enormous round structure built to 6
hold sporting events. The construction of the Colosseum, also called the Flavian Amphitheater, began under the rule of the Emperor Vespasian and was finally completed during the rule of Titus. The structure was constructed over approximately 12 years, from 70-82 CE. This amphitheater is an elliptical building with tiers of seats, meant to hold 50,000 people. The Colosseum had nearly 80 entrances, allowing spectators to easily enter and leave. It stands 158 feet tall, the equivalent of a modern 15- story building (Roman Colosseum, n.d.). On the exterior, each level is characterized by a different architectural order. The lowest level displays Doric columns, and the second level is decorated with Ionic columns. The Corinthian order dominates the third level. The original purpose of the Colosseum was as a sports arena. One of the most common events held here was the gladiator game. Gladiators were usually slaves, prisoners of war, or criminals who were condemned to death (The Colosseum, n.d.). The gladiators, armed with a sword, were set loose upon each other. The gladiator who survived won the match and went on to fight the next opponent. Public executions, where condemned prisoners were mauled to death by wild animals, were also a popular spectacle, as were staged hunts of wild animals. References Ancient Greece civilizations. (n.d.). Retrieved from Minnesota State University Web site: http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/aegean/pregreece/minoan/minoan.html Cave paintings. (n.d.). Retrieved from Artchive Web site: http://www.artchive.com/artchive/c/cave.html Explore the pyramids. (n.d.). Retrieved from National Geographic Web site: http://www.nationalgeographic.com/pyramids/pyramids.html#tombs Parthenon Elgin Marbles. (n.d.). Retrieved from: http://www.museumsecurity.org/will%20britain%20lose%20its%20marbles.htm Roman Colosseum. (n.d.). Retrieved from Great Buildings Web site: http://www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/roman_colosseum.html The Colosseum. (n.d.). Retrieved from The Colosseum Web site: 7
http://www.the-colosseum.net/idx-en.htm 8