P A R T I Basic Techniques
C H A P T E R 1 Getting Started Edward Steichen, Lotus, Mount Kisco, New York, 1915. Reprinted with permission of Joanna T. Steichen.
GETTING STARTED It is not difficult to take photographs. Billions of photographs are made by the public every year with successful results for their purposes. However, photography is a bit like sailing. With a little instruction it is not too hard to figure out how to get the boat to move, but it can take a lifetime to master all the intricacies. This chapter will give you just enough information to get moving. Once you have started producing photographs, you will probably want more information so that you can get even better results. Use the color edge tab guide to the photographic process on the front endsheets and the chapter references to locate more in-depth discussion of the steps covered in this chapter. If things do not turn out as well as you expected, chapter 7 can help you with some possible cures for your problems. Mastering the technical details that make up the craft of photography is only the beginning. To make photographs that communicate your ideas or feelings, you will also have to learn the differences between human visual perception and the way photographs represent reality. The best way to do this is to start making photographs, but you will find some helpful suggestions for improving your photographic seeing in chapter 9. Equipment and Materials To begin making photographs you will need film, camera, and a light meter, either the one built into your camera or a separate meter. Film Photographic film is a material that is sensitive to light. When a pattern of light falls on film, an image is produced. Chemical processing makes this image visible and useful for producing photographs. Any of the many types of film available, black and white or color, may be used for getting started. If you plan on processing your own film, black and white is simpler to process. On the film box you will see a number labeled ISO. The higher this number is, the more sensitive the film is to light. A good starting film is one with an ISO between 100/21 and 400/27. Several black-and-white films are available in this range: ISO 100/21 Kodak T-Max 100, Agfapan 100 Professional, Ilford Delta 100 ISO 125/22 ISO 400/27 Kodak Plus-X, Ilford FP4 Kodak Tri-X, Kodak T-Max 400, Agfapan 400 Professional, Ilford HP5, Ilford Delta 400, Ilford XP2 Super, Kodak Black and White 400 Color films for prints in this range are offered by Kodak, Konica, Agfa, and Fuji, all available in ISO 100, 200, and 400. See chapter 2 for complete film information. See pages 16 and 33 for more on film sensitivity. Ilford XP2 Super and Kodak Black and White 400 are black-and-white films designed to be processed in color print film developer (C-41). For a more complete listing of films, see appendix G. Camera A camera is basically a lighttight box that holds the film and has a lens that gathers light from the subject, forming an image of the subject on the film. Many different types, brands, and models of cameras are available. For the 3
CHAPTER 1 See chapter 4 for information on camera types. purpose of discussing operation of the camera, we will use a basic 35mm camera, shown on page 5. This is a manual camera, meaning that you have complete control over all the settings. Other cameras may control some settings automatically. For high-quality images the film must receive the proper amount of light, called the correct exposure. Two controls on the camera alter film exposure: the aperture and the shutter speed. Aperture The aperture is a variable-size opening in the lens, much like the iris in the eye. It is adjusted with the aperture ring. The numbers on the ring are an indication of the size of the opening and are called f-stop numbers. A standard series of f-stop numbers has been established: Aperture Control Ring Set at f/8. For more on aperture see pages 30 and 81. 1.4 2 2.8 4 5.6 8 11 16 22 More Exposure Less Exposure Contrary to what you might expect, larger f-stop numbers indicate smaller apertures, which admit less light. Setting the aperture at f/8 will give less exposure than setting it at f/4. For more on shutters see pages 29 and 59 63. Shutter Speed The shutter shields the film from the image formed by the lens until you are ready to take a photograph. When the shutter release (see Locating Camera Parts, page 5) is depressed, the shutter opens for the amount of time indicated on the shutter speed control dial, which is marked with a set of standard shutter speeds in seconds: 1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/15 1/30 1/60 1/125 1/250 1/500 1/1000 More Exposure (Slower Speeds) Less Exposure (Faster Speeds) Shutter Speed Dial Set for 1/125 Second. See pages 33 50 for complete information on light meter types and their uses. On the shutter speed dial these are indicated as whole numbers, but the actual shutter speeds are fractions of a second. The longer shutter speeds give more exposure to the film: 1/30 second will give more exposure than 1/125 second. Some cameras may have longer or shorter shutter speeds in addition to the ones given on this scale. Light Meter A reflective-type photographic light meter measures the amount of light coming from a subject and gives settings for the aperture and shutter speed to insure proper film exposure. Most small cameras made today have a light meter built into them. Separate light meters in their own housings handheld light meters are also available. A typical hand-held light meter is shown on page 9. A Procedure for Taking Photographs The following procedure explains how to make photographs with a manual camera. All cameras utilize the same controls, but the location and operation of those controls will vary, especially on cameras with automatic controls. If your camera is not like the one discussed, refer to your operator s manual to see how the controls on your camera correspond to the controls shown here. 4
GETTING STARTED Chapters 3 and 4 also help explain the operation of different types of light meters and cameras. If your camera can be set to completely manual operation, follow the procedures given here. Refer to the illustration below to locate controls. Locating Camera Parts Vivitar V4000s 35mm Camera. 5
CHAPTER 1 Loading the Film into the Camera A. Pull up on the back cover release rewind knob until the camera back pops open. B. Leave the knob pulled up and insert the film cassette into the camera. The end with the spindle projecting should be toward the bottom of the camera. Do not expose the film cassette to direct sunlight. C. Push the back cover release rewind knob all the way in, rotating it slightly if necessary. Insert the end of the narrow film leader firmly into one of the slots on the take-up spool. D. Operate the film-advance lever until the film is securely wrapped around the take-up spool and both edges of the film are engaged with the sprockets. If the film-advance lever will not move at any time during this procedure, press the shutter release and continue. E. Close the camera back and press gently until it latches. Repeatedly press the shutter release and operate the film-advance lever until the frame counter reads 1. Developing Ideas for Photographs Most photographs are taken as a record of people, places, things, or events. Many other reasons for making photographs exist, and some of these are discussed in chapters 9 and 10. For now, photograph anything that interests you. 6
GETTING STARTED Framing and Composing Your Photograph A. When you take a photograph, only part of what you see of the subject with your eyes will be included within the borders the frame of the photograph. To see what you are going to get in your photograph, look through the viewfinder of the camera. B. If you have one central subject, move backward or forward until you have it framed as you want it. Make sure that other objects appearing in the viewfinder do not distract from the main subject. Unattractive backgrounds or strong shapes or patterns may draw attention from the subject. Move the subject to a better place if possible, or change your position for a different point of view. C. Most cameras take a rectangular picture, so you can also turn the camera on end to get a different framing. This view shows the subject closer up with vertical framing. Evaluating the Light on Your Subject Flex the book and look for red and orange edge tabs for information throughout the book on composing and lighting the subject. A complete guide to the color edge tabs can be found inside the front cover. A. Start thinking about how the light falls on your subject, the quality of the light, the direction the light comes from, and the resulting pattern of light and shade on your subject. B. The easiest way to control the light on your subject is to simply move the subject so that the light strikes it in a more desirable way. Other ways of controlling light are discussed in chapters 8 and 14. 7
CHAPTER 1 Metering and Setting Camera Controls: In-Camera Meter A. Setting the ISO. Set the number before the slash of the ISO into the film speed window labeled ISO by lifting up on the outer rim of the shutter speed ring and rotating it. On some cameras the film speed window may be labeled ASA, but the procedures are the same. B. This dial is set for a film labeled ISO 125/22. Note that not all numbers are marked on the scale. The two dots between the 100 ISO mark and the 200 ISO mark correspond to ISO 125 and ISO 160. (See page 33 for a list of ISO numbers.) Some cameras automatically set the ISO if DX coding is indicated in the film labeling. C. Taking the Meter Reading. Point the camera just as you will when you take the photograph. In this view through the viewfinder, the needle on the right indicates the amount of light coming from the subject, and it will rise with increasing light and fall with decreasing light. The meter needle also moves as the aperture ring and the shutter speed dial are changed. D. Setting the Camera Controls. Keeping the camera pointed at the subject, change the shutter speed or the aperture settings or both until the needle is centered between the and signs. You will discover that several shutter speed and f-stop pairs will center the needle. All of these pairs give the same exposure to the film. E. Choosing Camera Settings. The controls are now set for a shutter speed and f-stop pair of f/8 at 1/125 second. Reasons for choosing one pair over another are discussed in later chapters. For now stay with shutter speeds of 1/60 second or faster for example, 1/125, 1/250, and so on to reduce the possibility of image blurring due to camera movement. NOTE: You can set the aperture ring between f-stops to make the meter balance, but the shutter operates only at the marked speeds. 8
GETTING STARTED Metering and Setting Camera Controls: Hand-Held Reflected-Light Meter Flex the book and look for yellow and green edge tabs for information throughout the book on measuring and controlling exposure. A. Setting the ISO. Set the number before the slash of the ISO into the window labeled ASA by rotating the inner dial of the meter calculator. Note that ASA has been superceded by ISO, but many meters are still marked ASA. Procedures are the same in either case. This dial is set for a film labeled ISO 125/22. Note that not all numbers are marked on the scale. The two dots between the 100 ISO mark and the 200 ISO mark correspond to ISO 125 and ISO 160. (See page 33 for a list of ISO numbers.) B. Taking the Meter Reading. Slide the white plastic incident dome to one side so that the light receptor is not covered. Holding the meter at the camera position, point the light receptor end of the meter in the same direction the camera will be pointing when the photograph is taken and push the metering switch to activate the meter. A common tendency is to tip the meter up to read the dial, in which case you are no longer metering the subject. C. Setting the Calculator. The needle will move when the metering switch is pressed. While keeping the meter button depressed and the meter pointed at the subject, move the outer ring of the calculator dial as shown and you will see the needle moving with the dial. Adjust the ring until the meter needle is centered on zero. (Other types of light meters are discussed in chapter 3.) continued 9
CHAPTER 1 D. Choosing Camera Settings. Once the calculator dial has been set, you may choose any pair of shutter speed and f-stop that are matched on the calculator dial. Here f/11 is matched with 1/250 second. Set f/11 on the aperture scale of the camera and 1/250 second on the shutter speed dial. You could also set the camera for f/16 at 1/125 second or f/8 at 1/500 second or any other matching pair. The result in terms of the exposure will be the same. Choose a shutter speed of 1/60 second or faster to avoid image blur from camera movement. E. If the shutter speeds and f-stops do not match up perfectly, choose a shutter speed and then set the aperture at the value indicated between the two f-stops. In this case, if the shutter speed is set at 1/250 second, then the f-stop should be set between f/8 and f/11. NOTE: You can set the aperture between f- stops, but the shutter operates only at the marked speeds. Focusing the Camera A. In the viewfinder, parts of your subject look sharp and clear, while other parts look blurred or fuzzy. This effect depends on the distance of the objects from the camera. The part of the subject that is sharp and clear is said to be in focus. Here the background is in focus and the people are not. B. The distance at which the subject is in focus can be changed by turning the focus ring. You will be able to see the focus change if you watch through the viewfinder. Turn the focus ring until the part of the subject you think is most important looks sharp and clear in the viewfinder. Now the people are in focus and the background is not. (See chapter 4 for focusing methods on other camera types.) C. The focus ring has a distance scale on it with a pointer, to tell you what distance will be in focus. Most cameras give this distance in both feet and meters, so be sure to read the correct scale. This camera is focused on 12 feet a little less than 4 meters. 10
GETTING STARTED Exposing the Photograph Check the focus and the framing of the subject. When you feel the moment is right, gently squeeze down on the shutter release to make the exposure on the film. To avoid blurring the image, steady the camera by holding your arms against your body and the camera against your face. After taking the photo, advance the film to the next frame with the filmadvance lever. Flex the book and look for blue edge tabs for information throughout the book on controlling the appearance of the image on your film by focus, filters, and other techniques. Rewinding the Film and Removing It from the Camera A. The number of exposures available on each roll of film is listed on its box. The film counter indicates the number of exposures you have made. After you have taken the last frame on a roll, you will be unable to advance the film. Do not force the film-advance lever. CAUTION Do not open the back of the camera until the film has been rewound. B. Turn the camera over and press the rewind release button on the bottom. If it does not stay in, hold it in with one finger while you perform the next steps. C. Flip open the small crank on the back cover release rewind knob. CAUTION Do not pull up on the back cover release rewind knob. Slowly wind in the direction of the arrow until you feel the film release from the take-up spindle. If you listen carefully you can also hear the end of the film as it releases and winds into the cassette. D. Pull up on the back cover release rewind knob until the back pops open and remove the film cassette from the camera. Protect the film cassette from direct sunlight, heat, and moisture until you have it processed. 11
CHAPTER 1 Processing and Printing the Exposed Film You can take your exposed film to a commercial photo finisher for processing and printing, or you can process and print the film yourself. If you plan to do your own processing and printing with black-and-white film, the procedures are given in detail in chapters 5 and 6. If you take the film to a photo finisher, it is more convenient to work with color film, since black-and-white processing and printing services are difficult to find. Evaluating Your First Results If you have been careful in following directions, your first roll of film should give you good results. Look for technical quality in the prints: Are they sharp and clear? Do the tones or colors look as you expected? Now look for aesthetic qualities of each photograph: Is the subject framed in a way you like? Do extraneous distracting details appear in the print? Are the expressions of people in the photograph interesting or attractive? Do you like the way light illuminates the subject? Have you recorded an interesting moment of time? What kind of feelings or ideas do you get from the photograph? You will probably also like to find out what other people think of your images. The remaining chapters in this text will help guide you through the process of learning to make more interesting and exciting photographs. 12