Lecture 7 Traditional Transmission (Narrowband) Small Scale Fading Time Variation
Communication Issues and Radio 2 Propagation Fading Channels Large Scale Fading Small Scale Fading Path-Loss & Shadowing Time Variation Time Dispersion Angular Dispersion Impacts Coverage Impacts signal design, receiver design, coding, BER
Small scale fading 3 n Multipath = several delayed replicas of the signal arriving at the receiver n Fading = constructive and destructive adding of the signals n Changes with time n Results in poor signal quality 1.5 1 0.5 Path 1 Path 2 Sum n Digital communications n High bit error rates Amplitude 0 amplitude loss 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 Time in Seconds
Summary 4 Large Scale Fading Histogram of Deviations is Shadow Fading Power in db Linear Fit of RSS in db to log(distance) Slope is the distance-power gradient Small Scale Fading Histogram of Deviations is Multipath Fading Fourier Transform of Deviations is Doppler Spectrum Distance from Base Station in Logarithmic Scale
Small scale fading amplitude 5 characteristics n Amplitudes are Rayleigh distributed n Worst case scenario results in the poorest performance n In line-of sight situations the amplitudes have a Ricean distribution n Strong LOS component has a better performance n Weak LOS component tends to a Rayleigh distribution n Other distributions have been found to fit the amplitude distribution n Lognormal n Nakagami
Rayleigh, Rician and Lognormal PDFs 6 fz(z) I 0 (x) is the modified Bessel function of the first kind of order zero 0.6065 f Ray (r) = r 2 exp r 2 z 2 2 f Ric (r) = r r 2 2 exp + K 2 Kr I 0 2 f LN (r) = 2 2,r 0,r 0,K 0 1 (ln(r) µ) 2 p 2 2 r exp 2 2
Time variation of the channel 7 n The radio channel is NOT time invariant n Movement of the mobile terminal n Movement of objects in the intervening environment n How quickly does the channel fade (change)? n For a time invariant channel, the channel does not change the signal level is always high or low n For time variant channels, it is important to know the rate of change of the channel (or how long the channel is constant) n Maximum Doppler frequency f m = f c v/c v is the velocity of the mobile (or speed of changes in the environment)
Fade rate and fade duration 8 time under the level packet level 0 30 time 6 crossings of the level in 30 seconds n The signal level is the db above or below the RMS value n Fade rate determines how quickly the amplitude changes (frequency à Doppler Spectrum) n Fade duration tells us how long the channel is likely to be bad n Design error correcting codes and interleaving depths to correct errors caused by fading
Fade rate and duration 9 Level crossing rate: N R = 2p f m r exp( -r 2 ) r = r / r rms Average fade duration: t = f m = maximum Doppler shift = f c v/c exp( -r r f m 2 ) -1 2p r = r / r rms v is the mobile velocity c is the speed of light f c is the carrier frequency
Coherence Time 10 n How long can you consider the channel to be constant in time? n Written as T c n Please don t confuse this with the chip duration that has the same symbol n Example n v = 100 km/h n At 900 MHz, f m is about 83.3 Hz f f m c = 3 100 10 8 3 10 3600 1 = 108 10 n The channel changes could occur 83.3 times a second n T c = 2.1 ms 5
Performance in Mobile Wireless 11 Channels n Wireless channel conditions include n Attenuation n Multipath n Fading n Interference n If the channel is affected by multipath and fading, performance is different from that in AWGN channels n Ideally we still want n Very low bit error rates at low signal to noise ratios under multipath and fading n Robust under multipath and fading n Does not degrade rapidly if the conditions change n Practically, we need an increase in complexity/cost, bandwidth, and/or power to overcome the effects of multipath and fading
Performance in Flat Rayleigh 12 Fading Channel Average Bit Error rate 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 P s = 1 2 P s = 1 2 erfc (p b) (AWGN - Non-fading) 1 35 db r BPSK b 1+ b (Flat Rayleigh-fading) 1 4 b 10 6 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Average SNR per Bit in db
Performance in Flat Rayleigh Fading 13 Channels n The BER is now a function of the average E b /N 0 n The fall in BER is linear not exponential! n Large power consumption on average to achieve a good BER n 30 db is three orders of magnitude larger High b and low P e that is close to 0 b b average Low b and high P e that is close to maximum of 0.5 time
What is diversity? 14 n Idea: Send the same information over several uncorrelated forms n Not all repetitions will be lost in a fade n Types of diversity n n n n Time diversity repeat information in time spaced so as to not simultaneously have fading n Error control coding! Frequency diversity repeat information in frequency channels that are spaced apart n Frequency hopping spread spectrum and OFDM Space diversity use multiple antennas spaced sufficiently apart so that the signals arriving at these antennas are not correlated n Usually deployed in all base stations but harder at the mobile n Transmit diversity and MIMO Polarization diversity
Example of Diversity 15 nnote that fades are NOT aligned in time b 1 Acceptable BER Diversity Branch 1 Threshold b nrecovering information from at least one diversity branch has a better chance b 2 1 2 Unacceptable BER Diversity Branch 2 time
Performance with diversity 16 n If there is ideal diversity, the performance can improve drastically BPSK with M orders of diversity n There are different forms of diversity combining n Maximal ratio combining n Difficult to implement n Equal gain combining n Easy to implement n Selection diversity n Easy to implement n Problems n Bandwidth!
Frequency Hopping and 17 Diversity n Notice that retransmissions are likely to succeed Hop Frequencies n Each transmission occupies a BW < coherence BW (later) Received SNR Transmission Lost Here Retransmission Here Successful frequency
Error control coding 18 n Coding is a form of diversity n Transmit redundant bits using which you can recover from errors n The redundant bits have a pattern that enables this recovery n Types of coding n Block codes (n,k) n Convolutional codes n Trellis coded modulation n Turbo codes n Idea of code rate R c n Tradeoffs k bit data block n-k parity check bits Block Encoder n bit codeword k data bits
Motivation for Error Control 19 Coding n We cannot derive the performance of error control codes here n Example of a (24,12) Golay code n Rayleigh fading channel n BFSK with two orders of diversity n BFSK with Golay code
Operation of block codes and 20 interleaving n Block codes can correct up to t errors in a block of n bits n The value of t depends on the code design n Hamming codes can correct one error n If the minimum distance of the code is d min, then the code can n n n Correct t = ë(d min 1)/2û errors Detect d min 1 errors If there are more than t errors, the errors cannot be usually corrected n In radio channels we see bursts of errors that may result in more than t bits in a block of n bits being in error n In order to correct these burst errors, it is common to interleave the bits n After coding n Before transmitting
What does coding get you? 21 n Consider a wireless link n Probability of a bit error = q n Probability of correct reception = p = 1 - q n In a block of k bits with no error correction n P(word correctly received) = p k n P(word error) = 1 p k n With error correction of t bits in block of n bits P(word correct) P(word error) = = 1- t ænö n-i i ç ( p) q 0 èi ø P(word correct) å i=
What does coding get you? 22 n Example consider (7,4) Hamming Code when BER = q =.01, p = 0.99 n In a block of 4 bits with no error correction n P(word correctly received) = p k =.9606 n P(word error) = 1 p k = 0.04 n With error correction of 1 bit in block of 7 bits P( word P( word correct) = error) = 1 t ' n$ n i i 7 % "( p) q = p 0 & i # P( word correct) = i= ' 7$ + % "( & 1 # 0.002 p) 6 q 1 = 0.998 n Get an order of magnitude improvement in word error rate
Impact of fading and coding 23 n Problem: n n An (n,k) block code consists of codewords that are n-bits long It can correct t bit errors within this block of n bits. n What happens if there is a burst of noise or fade and there are more than t bits in error? n n n Idea: n n We have looked at the average effect of coding We have ignored the time variation of the channel so far Errors in wireless channels occur in bursts If the errors can be spread over many codewords they can be corrected
Block interleaving 24 n n n n After codewords are created, the bits in the codewords are interleaved and transmitted This ensures that a burst of errors will be dispersed over several codewords and not within the same codeword Needs buffering at the receiver to create the original data The interleaving depth depends on the nature of the channel, the application under consideration, etc.
Convolutional Codes 25 n There is a finite state machine with memory (K units) that generates an encoded output from a serial input data n Decoding is achieved via a tree or a trellis by choosing the most likely path within the tree or trellis n Soft decoding is possible n A decision on a bit is made based on a variety of signal levels and not a single threshold n Convolutional codes are more powerful than block codes but they require a larger redundancy n Rate 1/3 and ½ codes are used in GSM and CDMA n Data rate is reduced by half or two-thirds with these codes
Performance with Convolutional Codes 26 n Graph is not to scale, but only to give you an idea Rate 1/2 Convolutional Code, K=3, K=4, K=5 n The plot is in a flat Rayleigh fading channel n You can see that with roughly two orders of diversity, coding is far more efficient 10-4 P e 14 BFSK No Diversity BFSK 2 orders of diversity 16 26 40 Average E b /N 0 in db For illustration only; Not to scale
The search for the perfect code 27 nturbocode n Concatenation of codes with interleaving n Followed by an iterative algorithm for decoding n Use soft decisions to make the decoding powerful n Instead of counting differences in bit positions, distance probabilities are used n These are called probabilistic codes for this reason unlike typical block and convolutional codes that are called algebraic codes n Used in 3G cellular (UMTS) standard
Turbocode Performance 28 n Once a critical value of E b /N 0 is reached, the BER with turbocoding drops rapidly n At P e = 10-5, the turbocode is less than 0.5 db from Shannon s theoretical limit n Needs a large block length n Needs a large number of iterations P e 10 0 10-1 10-2 10-3 Shannon s limit for rate 1/2 coding Turbocode Uncoded n It displays an error floor typically at P e =10-6 or so n The dashed curve is halted in the figure 10-4 10-5 10-6 AWGN 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 E b /N 0 in db For illustration only; Not to scale
Turbocode Performance in a Flat 29 Rayleigh Fading Channel nsome results with interleaving and side information nsee E.K. Hall and S. G. Wilson, Design and Analysis of Turbocodes on Rayleigh Fading Channels, IEEE JSAC, Feb. 1998 P e 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 For illustration only; Not to scale capacity Larger block length Small block length 0 1 2 3 4 5 E b /N 0
Transmit Diversity: Alamouti Scheme BPSK - Coherent Detection n Provides close to two orders of diversity n It is 3 db worse than ideal receive diversity because the two transmit antennas split the total power n If there are M receive antennas, you can get diversity of order 2M in the same way n Works for any complex modulation scheme n Can think of it as a spacetime code n Used in 3G systems 30 30
Alamouti s Scheme in a 2 1 system 31 nsend symbols in space and time as shown below Transmitter
Alamouti s Scheme in a 2 1 system (2) ncombining scheme 32 nwhat do we get? nsimilarly Two orders of diversity
MIMO Diversity 33 nidea n Use both transmit and receive diversity! nconsider the Alamouti scheme in the 2 2 MIMO system n Send two symbols in two symbol periods n Both receive antennas are used to detect the transmitted symbols nquestions n What is the data rate? n What is the benefit? (see next)
Alamouti s Scheme in a 2 2 system 34 n Receive antenna 1 gets: n Receive antenna 2 gets: r 0 = h 11 s 0 + h 21 s 1 + n 0 r 1 = h 11 s 1 + h 21 s 0 + n 1 r 2 = h 12 s 0 + h 22 s 1 + n 0 r 3 = h 12 s 1 + h 22 s 0 + n 3 n Receiver combines signals this way: s 0 = h 11 r 0 + h 21 r 1 + h 12 r 2 + h 22 r 3 s 1 = h 21 r 0 h 11 r 1 + h 22 r 2 h 12 r 3
What do you end up with? 35 s 0 = s 1 = 2 0 + 1 2 + 2 2 + 3 2 s0 + h 11 n 0 + h 21 n 1 + h 12 n 2 + h 22 n 3 2 0 + 1 2 + 2 2 + 3 2 s1 h 11 n 1 + h 21 n 0 h 12 n 3 + h 22 n 2 You get 4 orders of diversity! You have both transmit and receive diversity
Space-Time Block Coding n Generalization of Alamouti codes for any number of transmit antennas n Parameters: n N transmit antennas (space) n k time slots (time) n m symbols n Rate of the code is R = m/k n Idea: Transmit a block of Nk symbols with redundancies in space and time n Each antenna uses only 1/N of the total power Lecture 6 Prashant Krishnamurthy 36
Impact of Time Dispersion 37
Performance in Frequency Selective Channels 38 10 1 nfigure shows impact of ISI in non-fading channels nif you include fading, things get worse nincreasing power has no effect!! Bit Error Rate 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 1 2 erfc (p b) 1 2 erfc No ISI s 1 1/ b +0.1 With ISI! 10 6 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 γ b in db
Multipath models for time dispersion 39 n The time dispersion introduced by the radio channel causes intersymbol interference and degrades the performance n The RMS delay spread poses a limitation on the maximum data rate that can be supported over a channel n Frequency selective fading (RMS delay spread > symbol duration) n Flat fading (RMS delay spread is << symbol duration) n Multipath models are required to characterize wideband systems n TDMA with high data rates n CDMA with high chip rates n WLANs (many Mbps)
Time dispersion in a radio channel 40 n Time domain view n There are multipath components that can cause inter-symbol interference if the symbol duration is smaller than the multipath delay spread n Linear time invariant impulse response Q( ) = LX i=1 P i (t i ) n Frequency domain view n There are multipath components that can cause notches in the frequency response n The channel has a coherence bandwidth where the characteristics are constant n The coherence bandwidth limits the maximum data rate that can be supported over the channel
Idea of Delay Spread 41 Coherence bandwidth of the channel is approximately 1/10t rms
Delay Spread over Distance 42 Channel Impulse Response at a Given Time But, usually, we assume a constant RMS Delay Spread for a channel Received Signal Strength in dbm Distance from Base Station in Logarithmic Scale
The RMS Delay Spread 43 nthe RMS delay spread is a function of the P i and t i nthe larger the RMS delay spread, the smaller is the data rate that can be supported over the channel nrms delay spread varies between a few microseconds in urban areas to a few nanoseconds in indoor areas n Higher data rates are possible indoor and not outdoor!! nthe coherence bandwidth determines whether a signal is narrowband or wideband
Example of RMS delay spread Consider the power delay profile given here τ M 0.1 0 + 1 1+ 0.1 2 + 1 3+ 0.01 5 = 0.1+ 1+ 0.1+ 1+ 0.01 = 1.47 µ s τ 2 = = 0.1 0 2 4.82 µ s 2 2 2 + 1 1 + 0.1 2 + 1 3 + 0.01 5 0.1+ 1+ 0.1+ 1+ 0.01 2 2 τ RMS = 4.82 1.47 2 =1.39 µs B c = 10 1 1.39 = 72 khz 44
RMS delay spread 45 n Measured RMS delay spread values n Indoor areas: 30-300 ns n Open areas: 0.2 µs n Suburban areas: 1 µ s n Urban areas: 1-5 µs n Hilly urban areas: 3-10 µs
Sample measurements Office 46 Areas 1 Fc = 1000 MHz / Peak value = -76.1097 db 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 1 GHz 0.4 1 Fc = 500 MHz / Peak value = -75.0557 db 0.3 0.9 0.2 0.8 0.1 0.7 0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 time (in ns) 0.6 0.5 500 MHz 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 time (in ns)
Narrowband and Wideband 47 Signal Narrowband Signal Wideband Signal Source: Introduction to Wireless Systems by P.M. Shankar, John Wiley & Sons, 2002
Regions of Influence 48 n Depending on the symbol duration (or signal bandwidth) and the channel conditions, we may see different things happening in a radio channel Coherence BW x T Fast & Flat Slow & Flat Fast & Freq. Sel. Slow & Freq. Sel. Coherence Time/T Source: Introduction to Wireless Systems by P.M. Shankar, John Wiley & Sons, 2002
Performance degradation and 49 mitigation Issue Performance Affected Mitigation Technique Shadow Fading Time Variation Time Dispersion Coverage Bit error rate Packet error rate Inter-symbol Interference and Irreducible Error Rates Fade Margin Increase transmit power or decrease cell size Error control coding Interleaving Frequency hopping Diversity Equalization DS-Spread Spectrum OFDM Directional Antennas
Radio Propagation Characterization 50 Fading Channels Large Scale Fading Small Scale Fading Path Loss Shadow Fading Time Variation Time Dispersion Coverage Amplitude fluctuations Distribution of amplitudes Rate of change of amplitude Doppler Spectrum Multipath Delay Spread Coherence Bandwidth Intersymbol Interference Receiver Design (coding) Performance (BER) Receiver Design, Performance Maximum Data Rates
Time Dispersion (Revisited) 51-65 -70-75 Power in dbm -80-85 -90-95 Deep Fade at Specific Frequencies -100 900 920 940 960 980 1000 1020 1040 1060 1080 1100 Frequency in MHz
What does time dispersion do? 52 n Multipath dispersion or coherence bandwidth results in irreducible error rates n Even if the power is infinitely increased, there will be large number of errors n The only means of overcoming the effects of dispersion are to use n Equalization n Direct sequence spread spectrum n Orthogonal frequency division P e 10 0 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6 For illustration only, not to scale With time dispersion With flat fading No small scale fading multiplexing 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 E /N b 0
Equalization 53 n An equalizer n Filter that performs the inverse of the channel n Compensate for the distortion created by the frequency selectivity caused by multipath time dispersion n Combats ISI n Equalization n Any signal processing that reduces the impact of ISI a Source: Introduction to Wireless Systems by P.M. Shankar, John Wiley & Sons, 2002
Equalization Concepts 54 n In wireless networks equalizers must be adaptive n Channel is usually unknown and time varying n Equalizers track the time variation and adapt Channel Equalizer n Equalizer is usually implemented at baseband Source: Introduction to Wireless Systems by P.M. Shankar, John Wiley & Sons, 2002
Operating Modes of an Equalizer 55 n Two step approach to equalization n Training n A known fixed-length sequence is transmitted for the receiver s equalizer to train on n This sets the parameters in the equalizer n Tracking n The equalizer tracks the channel changes with the help of the training sequence n Uses a channel estimate to compensate for distortions in the unknown sequence
Operating Modes (2) 56 n Training n Training sequence is typically a pseudorandom or fixed binary pattern n Needs to be designed to account for the worst case conditions n Fastest velocity, largest delay spread, deepest fades n Enables the receiver to set its filter coefficients at near optimal values n Requires periodic training n What is the maximum amount of time you can transmit data before the equalizer has to be trained again? n Tracking n User data is transmitted immediately after training
Operating Modes (3) 57 n During the training step, the channel response, h(t) is estimated n During the tracking step, the input signal, s(t), is estimated Known Measured Unknown Training s(t) r(t) h(t) /Estimated s(t) h(t) r(t) Tracking h(t) r(t) s(t)
Types of Equalizers 58 nlinear transversal equalizer, Decision feedback equalizer (DFE), and Maximum likelihood sequence estimator (MLSE) nequalizer Algorithms n Zero forcing algorithm n The equalizer forces the combined channel-equalizer response to be zero at t = ±kt for all k except one n Least mean square (LMS) algorithm n Minimizes the mean square error between the equalizer output and desired output n Recursive least squares (RLS) algorithm n Uses adaptive signal processing and time averages
Comments on Equalization 59 ndisadvantages of equalizers n Complexity & power consumption n Numerical errors nfractionally spaced equalizers n Use taps that are spaced to sample the signal at the Nyquist rate and not the symbol rate nequalizers are used in NA-TDMA, GSM and HIPERLAN n SC-FDMA used on the LTE uplink can be thought of as frequency domain equalization