nstitute for NT/JF, GAT, T-JAM, M.Sc. ntrance, JST, TF and G in Physics 3. ipolar Junction Transistors 3.1 Transistor onstruction Transistor is a three-layer semiconductor device consisting of either two n- and one p-type layer of material or two p- and one n-type layers of material. The former is called npn transistor, while latter is called an pnp transistor. oth are shown in figure 3.1 with proper biasing. p n p n p n (a ) (b) Figure 3.1: Types of transistors: (a) pnp (b) npn. The emitter layer is heavily doped, the base lightly doped, and the collector only lightly doped. The outer layers have widths much greater than the sandwiched p- or n-type material. The ratio of the total width to that of the center layer is 150:1. The doping of the sandwiched layer is also considerably less than that of the outer layer (typically, 10:1 or less).this lower doping level decreases the conductivity (increases the resistance) of this material by limiting the number of free carriers. The terminals have been indicated by the capital letters for emitter, for collector, and for base. The term bipolar junction transistor (JT) reflects the fact that holes and electrons participate in the injection process into the oppositely polarized material. H.No. 40-D, Ground Floor, Jia Sarai, Near T, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016 Website: www.physicsbyfiziks.com mail: fiziks.physics@gmail.com 1
nstitute for NT/JF, GAT, T-JAM, M.Sc. ntrance, JST, TF and G in Physics 3.2 Transistor Operation The basic operation of the transistor is described using pnp transistor as shown in figure 3.1(a). The operation of the npn transistor is exactly the same if the roles played by the electron and holes are interchanged. n figure 3.2 the pnp transistor has been redrawn without the base-to-collector bias (similar to forward-biased diode). The depletion region has been reduced in width due to applied bias, resulting in a heavy flow of majority carriers from p- to the n-type material. Majority carriers p n Depletion region Figure 3.2: Forward-biased junction of a pnp transistor. Let us now remove the base-to-emitter bias of the pnp transistor of figure 3.1(a) as shown in figure 3.3 (similar to reverse-biased diode). ecall that the flow of majority carriers is zero, resulting in only a minority-carrier flow. Thus One p-n junction of a transistor is reversed biased, while the other is forward biased. Minority carriers n p Depletion region Figure 3.3: everse based junction of a pnp transistor. H.No. 40-D, Ground Floor, Jia Sarai, Near T, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016 Website: www.physicsbyfiziks.com mail: fiziks.physics@gmail.com 2
nstitute for NT/JF, GAT, T-JAM, M.Sc. ntrance, JST, TF and G in Physics n figure 3.4 both biasing potentials have been applied to a pnp transistor, with the resulting majority and minority-carrier flow indicated. The widths of the depletion regions, indicating clearly which junction is forward-biased and which is reversed-biased. A large number of majority carriers will diffuse across the forward-biased p-n junction into the n-type material. Since n-type material is very thin and has low conductivity, a very small number of these carriers will take this path of high resistance to the base terminal. The larger number of these majority carriers will diffuse across the reversebiased junction into the p-type material connected to the collector terminal. Thus there has been an injection of minority carriers into the n-type base region material. ombining this with the fact that all the minority carriers in the depletion region will cross the reversed-biased junction of a diode accounts for the flow indicated in the figure 3.4. Majority carriers Minority carriers p n p O Depletion region Applying Kirchhoff s current law to the transistor of figure 3.4 as if it were a single node, we obtain Figure 3.4: Majority and minority carrier flow of a pnp transistor. The minority current component is called the leakage current and is given by the symbol O (collector current with emitter terminal open). The collector current, therefore is: majority Ominority H.No. 40-D, Ground Floor, Jia Sarai, Near T, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016 Website: www.physicsbyfiziks.com mail: fiziks.physics@gmail.com 3
nstitute for NT/JF, GAT, T-JAM, M.Sc. ntrance, JST, TF and G in Physics 3.3 Transistor onfigurations 3.3.1 ommon-ase onfiguration The common-base configuration with pnp and npn transistors are shown in figure 3.5. The common-base terminology is derived from the fact that the base is common to both the input and output sides of the configurations. p n p 3.5( a ) : pnp n p n 3.5( b ) : npn Figure 3.5: Notation and symbols used with the common base-configuration: (a) pnp transistor; (b) npn transistor. To fully describe the behavior of a three terminal device such as common base amplifiers requires two set of characteristics- one for the driving point or input parameters and the other for the output side. H.No. 40-D, Ground Floor, Jia Sarai, Near T, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016 Website: www.physicsbyfiziks.com mail: fiziks.physics@gmail.com 4
nstitute for NT/JF, GAT, T-JAM, M.Sc. ntrance, JST, TF and G in Physics nput haracteristics The input set for the common base amplifiers as shown in figure 3.6 will relate an input current ( ) to an input voltage ( ) for various levels of output voltage ( ). ma 20 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 10 1 0.2 0. 4 0. 6 0. 8 1. 0 Figure 3.6: nput or driving point characteristics for a common-base silicon transistor. Output haracteristics The output set will relate an output current ( ) to an output voltage ( ) for various levels of input current ( ). The output characteristics have three basic regions of interest: the active, cutoff, and saturation regions. The active region is the region normally employed for linear (undistorted) amplifiers. n the active region the collector-base junction is reversed-biased, while the base-emitter junction is forward biased. H.No. 40-D, Ground Floor, Jia Sarai, Near T, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016 Website: www.physicsbyfiziks.com mail: fiziks.physics@gmail.com 5
nstitute for NT/JF, GAT, T-JAM, M.Sc. ntrance, JST, TF and G in Physics (ma) 7 Active region (unshaded area) 7 ma 6 6 ma 5 5mA 4 4 ma 3 3mA 2 1 0 0 2 ma 1mA 5 10 15 20 cutoff region 0 ma Figure 3.7: Output or collector characteristics for a common-base transistor amplifier. The circuit condition that exists when 0 for common base configuration is shown in figure 3.8. Note that temperature. n the output characteristics as the emitter current increases above zero, the collector current increases to a magnitude essentially equal to that of the emitter current as determined by the basic transistor current relations. Note O is temperature dependent and increases so rapidly with also the almost negligible effect of on the collector current for the active region. n the cutoff region the collector-base and base-emitter junctions are both reversedbiased. n the saturation region the collector-base and base-emitter junctions are both forwardbiased. 0 O O Figure 3.8: everse Saturation current. H.No. 40-D, Ground Floor, Jia Sarai, Near T, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016 Website: www.physicsbyfiziks.com mail: fiziks.physics@gmail.com 6
nstitute for NT/JF, GAT, T-JAM, M.Sc. ntrance, JST, TF and G in Physics Alpha ( ) n the dc mode the levels of and due to majority carriers are related by a quantity called alpha and defined by the following equations: dc where and are the levels of current at the point of operation. Thus majority Ominority O For ac situations where the point of operation moves on the characteristics curve, an ac alpha is defined by ac. constant The ac alpha is formally called the common-base, short-circuit, amplification factor. The typical values of voltage amplification o i for the common-base configuration vary from 50 to 300. The current amplification common-base configuration. is always less than 1 for the H.No. 40-D, Ground Floor, Jia Sarai, Near T, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016 Website: www.physicsbyfiziks.com mail: fiziks.physics@gmail.com 7
nstitute for NT/JF, GAT, T-JAM, M.Sc. ntrance, JST, TF and G in Physics 3.3.2 ommon mitter onfiguration The common-emitter configuration with pnp and npn transistors are shown in figure 3.9. The common-emitter terminology is derived from the fact that the emitter is common to both the input and output sides of the configurations. n p n np n np (a) n-p-n (b) p-n-p Figure 3.9: Notation and symbols used with the common-emitter configuration. To fully describe the behavior of a three terminal device such as common emitter amplifier requires two set of characteristics- one for the input or base-emitter circuit and one for the output or collector-emitter circuit. The output characteristics will relate an output current ( ) to an output voltage ( ) for various levels of input current ( ). The input characteristics for the common emitter amplifiers will relate an input current ( ) to an input voltage ( ) for various levels of output voltage ( ). H.No. 40-D, Ground Floor, Jia Sarai, Near T, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016 Website: www.physicsbyfiziks.com mail: fiziks.physics@gmail.com 8
nstitute for NT/JF, GAT, T-JAM, M.Sc. ntrance, JST, TF and G in Physics n the active region the collector-base junction is reversed-biased, while the base-emitter junction is forward biased. n the cutoff region the collector-base and base-emitter junctions are both reversedbiased. n the saturation region the collector-base and base-emitter junctions are both forwardbiased. (ma) 60 A 20 50 A 15 Saturation 10 40 A 30 A 20 A 10 20 Since or Figure 3.10: haracteristics of a silicon transistor in the common emitter 5 0 A A 0 5 10 15 20 sat cutoff a max configuration: (a) ollector characteristics; (b) base characteristics. O O ( where O ) O O 1 0 10 A O 1 1 and. 1 ( ) 0.7 b 0 O Figure 3.11: ircuit condition related to O. H.No. 40-D, Ground Floor, Jia Sarai, Near T, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016 Website: www.physicsbyfiziks.com mail: fiziks.physics@gmail.com 9
nstitute for NT/JF, GAT, T-JAM, M.Sc. ntrance, JST, TF and G in Physics eta ( ) n the dc mode the levels of and are related by a quantity called beta and defined by the following equations: dc where and are the levels of current at the point of operation. For ac situations where the point of operation moves on the characteristics curve, an ac beta is defined by ac constant. The formal name for ac is common emitter forward-current amplification factor. 3.3.3 ommon-ollector onfiguration The third and final transistor configuration is the common collector configuration, shown in figure 3.12 with the proper current directions and voltage notation. The commoncollector configuration is used primarily for impedance-matching purposes since it has a high input impedance and low output impedance, opposite to that of the common-base and common-emitter configurations. p n p n p n a Figure 3.12: Notation and symbols used with the common-collector configuration. b H.No. 40-D, Ground Floor, Jia Sarai, Near T, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016 Website: www.physicsbyfiziks.com mail: fiziks.physics@gmail.com 10
nstitute for NT/JF, GAT, T-JAM, M.Sc. ntrance, JST, TF and G in Physics A common collector circuit configuration is provided in figure 3.13 with the load resistor connected from emitter to ground. Note that the collector is tied to ground even though the transistor is connected in a manner similar to the common emitter configuration. For all practical purposes, the output characteristics of the Figure 3.13: ommon-collector configuration. configuration are same as for the configuration. 3.4 D iasing-jts 3.4.1 ntroduction The analysis or design of a transistor amplifier requires knowledge of both the dc and ac response of the system. The improved output ac power level is the result of a transfer of energy from the applied dc supplies. The analysis or design of any electronic amplifier, therefore, has two components: the dc portion and the ac portion. Fortunately, the superposition theorem is applicable and the investigation of the dc conditions can be totally separated from the ac response. However, one must keep in mind that during the design stage the choice of parameters for the required dc levels will affect the ac response and vice-versa. The dc level of operation of a transistor is controlled by a number of factors, including the range of possible operating points on the device characteristics. ach design will also determine the stability of the system, that is, how sensitive the system is to temperature variations. Although a number of networks will be analyzed, there is an underlying similarly between the analysis of each configuration due to the recurring use of the following important basic relationships for a transistor: 0.7, 1 and H.No. 40-D, Ground Floor, Jia Sarai, Near T, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016 Website: www.physicsbyfiziks.com mail: fiziks.physics@gmail.com 11
nstitute for NT/JF, GAT, T-JAM, M.Sc. ntrance, JST, TF and G in Physics 3.4.2 Operating Point Since the operating point is a fixed point on the characteristics it is also called the quiescent point (abbreviated Q-point). y definition, quiescent means quiet, still, inactive. Figure 3.14 shows a general output device characteristic with four operating points indicated. The biasing circuit can be designed to set the device operation at any of these points or others within the active region. The maximum ratings are indicated on the characteristics by a horizontal line for the maximum collector current line at the maximum collector-to-emitter voltage is defined by the curve max max and a vertical. The maximum power constraint P max in the same figure. At the lower end of the scales are the cutoff regions, defined by 0 A and the saturation region, defined by. sat (ma) 80 A max 25 20 70 A 60 A 50 A 15 P max 40 A Saturation 10 D 30 A 20 A 5 10 A 0 A A 0 5 10 15 20 sat cutoff max ( ) Figure 3.14: arious operating points within the limits of operation of a transistor. H.No. 40-D, Ground Floor, Jia Sarai, Near T, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016 Website: www.physicsbyfiziks.com mail: fiziks.physics@gmail.com 12
nstitute for NT/JF, GAT, T-JAM, M.Sc. ntrance, JST, TF and G in Physics f no bias were used, the device would initially be completely off, resulting in a Q-point at A-namely zero current through the device (and zero voltage across it). Since it is necessary to bias a device so that it can respond to the entire range of an input signal point A would not be suitable. For point if a signal is applied to the circuit, the device will vary in current and voltage from operating point, allowing the device to react to both the positive and negative excursion of the input signal. f the input signal is properly chosen, the voltage and current of the device will vary but not enough to drive the device into cutoff or saturation. Point would allow some positive and negative variation of the output signal but the peak-to-peak value would be limited by the proximity of 0, 0 ma. Operating at point also raise some concern about the nonlinearities introduced by the fact that the spacing between curves is rapidly changing in this region. n general, it is preferable to operate where the gain of the device is fairly constant (or linear) to ensure that the amplification over the entire swing of input signal is the same. Point D sets the device operating point near the maximum voltage and power level. The output voltage swing in the positive direction is thus limited if the maximum voltage is not to be exceeded. Point is a region of more linear spacing and therefore, seems the best operating point in terms of linear gain and largest possible voltage and current swing. This is usually the desired condition for small-signal amplifiers but not the case necessarily for power amplifiers. n this discussion, we will be concentrating primarily on biasing the transistor for small-signal amplification operation. Having selected and biased the JT at a desired operating point, the effect of temperature must also be taken into account. Temperature causes the device parameters such as the transistor current gain ac and the transistor leakage current to change. Higher temperatures result in increased leakage currents in the device, thereby changing the operating condition set by the biasing network. The result is that the network design must also provide a degree of temperature stability so that temperature changes result in minimum changes in the operating point. O H.No. 40-D, Ground Floor, Jia Sarai, Near T, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016 Website: www.physicsbyfiziks.com mail: fiziks.physics@gmail.com 13
nstitute for NT/JF, GAT, T-JAM, M.Sc. ntrance, JST, TF and G in Physics This maintenance of the operating point can be specified by a stability factor, S, which indicates the degree of change in operating point due to a temperature variation. A highly stable circuit is desirable and the stability of a few basic bias circuits will be compared. For the JT to be biased in its linear or active operating region the following must be true: 1. The base-emitter junction must be forward-biased (p-region voltage more positive) with a resulting forward-bias voltage of about 0.6 to 0.7. 2. The base-collector junction must be reverse-biased (n-region more positive), with the reverse-bias voltage being any value within the maximum limits of the device. Operation in the cutoff, saturation and linear regions of the JT characteristic are provided as follows: 1. Linear-region operation: ase-emitter junction forward biased ase-collector junction reversed biased 2. utoff-region operation: ase-emitter junction reverse biased ase-collector junction reversed biased 3. Saturation-region operation: ase-emitter junction forward biased ase-collector junction forward biased H.No. 40-D, Ground Floor, Jia Sarai, Near T, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016 Website: www.physicsbyfiziks.com mail: fiziks.physics@gmail.com 14
nstitute for NT/JF, GAT, T-JAM, M.Sc. ntrance, JST, TF and G in Physics 3.5 Fixed-ias ircuit The fixed-bias circuit of figure 3.15 provides a relatively straightforward and simple introduction to transistor dc bias analysis. ven though the network employs an npn transistor, the equations and calculations apply equally well to a pnp transistor configuration merely by changing all current directions and the voltage polarities. ac input signal 1 2 ac output signal Figure 3.15: Fixed-bias circuit For the dc analysis the network can be isolated from the indicated ac levels by replacing the capacitors with an opencircuit equivalent. n addition, the dc supply can be separated into two supplies (for analysis purposes only) as shown in figure 3.16 to permit a separation of input and output circuits. t also reduces the linkage between the two to the base current. Figure 3.16: D equivalent of figure 3.15. H.No. 40-D, Ground Floor, Jia Sarai, Near T, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016 Website: www.physicsbyfiziks.com mail: fiziks.physics@gmail.com 15
nstitute for NT/JF, GAT, T-JAM, M.Sc. ntrance, JST, TF and G in Physics 3.5.1 Q-Point Forward ias of ase-mitter onsider first the base-emitter circuit loop of figure shown 3.17. Writing Kirchhoff s voltage equation in the clockwise direction for the loop, we obtain 0 Note the polarity of the voltage drop across as established by the indicated direction of. Solving the equation for the current will result in the following: Figure 3.17: ase-emitter loop. Since the supply voltage and the base-emitter voltage are constants, the selection of a base resistor, ollector-mitter Loop sets the level of base current for the operating point. The collector-emitter section of the network appears in figure 3.18 with the indicated direction of current polarity across. and the resulting The magnitude of the collector current is related directly to through t is interesting to note that since the base current is controlled by the level of magnitude of is not a function of the resistance. hange and is related to by a constant the to any level and it will not affect the level of or as long as we remain in the active region of the device. However, as we shall see, the level of an important parameter. Figure 3.18: ollector-emitter loop. will determine the magnitude of, which is H.No. 40-D, Ground Floor, Jia Sarai, Near T, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016 Website: www.physicsbyfiziks.com mail: fiziks.physics@gmail.com 16
nstitute for NT/JF, GAT, T-JAM, M.Sc. ntrance, JST, TF and G in Physics Applying Kirchhoff s voltage law in the clockwise direction around the indicated closedloop of figure 3.18 will result in the following: 0 As a brief review of single and double subscript notation recall that where is the voltage from collector to emitter and and are the voltages from collector and emitter to ground respectively. ut in this case since 0, we have. Figure 3.19: Measuring and. n addition, since and 0 then. Keep in mind that voltage levels such as are determined by placing the positive lead of the voltmeter at the collector terminal with the negative lead at the emitter terminal as shown in figure 3.19. is the voltage from collector to ground and is measured as shown in the same figure. n this case the two readings are identical, but in the networks to follow the two can be quite different. 3.5.2 Transistor Saturation The term saturation is applied to any system where levels have reached their maximum values. For a transistor operating in the saturation region the current is a maximum value for the particular design. hange the design and the corresponding saturation level may rise or drop. Saturation conditions are normally avoided because the base-collector junction is no longer reverse-biased and the output amplified signal will be distorted. An operating point in the saturation region is depicted in figure 3.20. Note that it is in a region where the characteristic curves join and the collector-to-emitter voltage is at or below addition, the collector current is relatively high on the characteristics. sat. n H.No. 40-D, Ground Floor, Jia Sarai, Near T, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016 Website: www.physicsbyfiziks.com mail: fiziks.physics@gmail.com 17
nstitute for NT/JF, GAT, T-JAM, M.Sc. ntrance, JST, TF and G in Physics f we approximate the curves of figure 3.20(a) by those appearing in figure 3.20(b), a quick direct method for determining the saturation level becomes apparent. n figure 3.20(b) the current is relatively high and the voltage is assumed to be zero volts. Applying Ohm s law the resistance between collector and emitter terminals can be determined as follows: 0 0 sat sat Q point sat Q point 0 sat 0 (a ) (b) Figure 3.20: Saturation region (a) actual (b) approximate. For saturation current set 0 and find. For the fixed-bias configuration of sat figure 3.22 the short circuit has been applied, causing the voltage across to be the applied voltage. The resulting saturation current for the fixed-bias configuration is sat ( 0 0, sat sat ) sat 0 Figure 3.21: Determining sat Figure 3.22: for the fixed-bias configuration. sat H.No. 40-D, Ground Floor, Jia Sarai, Near T, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016 Website: www.physicsbyfiziks.com mail: fiziks.physics@gmail.com 18
nstitute for NT/JF, GAT, T-JAM, M.Sc. ntrance, JST, TF and G in Physics 3.5.3 Load-Line Analysis We will now investigate how the network parameters define the possible range of Q-points and how the actual Q-point is determined. ( m) 8 50 7 40 6 30 5 4 20 3 10 2 1 0 0 5 10 15 ( ) (a ) O (b) Figure 3.23: Load-line analysis (a) the network (b) the device characteristics. The network of figure 3.23(a) establishes an output equation that relates the variables and in the following manner: The output characteristics of the transistor also relate the same two variables and 0 Q point Q in figure 3.23(b). We must now superimpose the straight line defined by equation on the characteristics. f we choose to be 0 ma, we are specifying the horizontal axis as the line on which one point is located. y substituting 0 ma, we find that defining one point for 0 m the straight line as shown in figure 3.24. 0 0 ma Load line Figure 3.24: Fixed-bias load. H.No. 40-D, Ground Floor, Jia Sarai, Near T, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016 Website: www.physicsbyfiziks.com mail: fiziks.physics@gmail.com 19
nstitute for NT/JF, GAT, T-JAM, M.Sc. ntrance, JST, TF and G in Physics f we now choose to be 0, which establishes the vertical axis as the line on which the second point will be defined, we find that is determined by the following equation: 0 and as appearing on figure 3.24. 0 y joining the two points defined by equation and 0 m the 0 straight line established by equation can be drawn. The resulting line on the graph of figure 3.24 is called the load line since it is defined by the load resistor. y solving for the resulting level of the actual Q-point can be established. f the level of is changed by varying the value of the load line as shown in figure 3.25. the Q-point moves up or down Q point Q point Q point 3 2 1 NOT: For Fixed Figure 3.25: Movement of Q-point with increasing levels of. if temperature of the device increases the Q-point will moves towards the saturation region as shown in figure 3.25. Since O with increase in temperature reverse current O increases. O H.No. 40-D, Ground Floor, Jia Sarai, Near T, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016 Website: www.physicsbyfiziks.com mail: fiziks.physics@gmail.com 20
nstitute for NT/JF, GAT, T-JAM, M.Sc. ntrance, JST, TF and G in Physics f is held fixed and changed, the load line will shift as shown in figure 3.26. f is held fixed, the Q-point will move as shown in the same figure. 3 2 1 Q point Q point Q point Q Figure 3.26: ffect of increasing levels of on the load line and Q-point. f is fixed and varied, the load line shifts as shown in figure 3.27. 1 2 3 Q point Q point Q point 1 2 3 Q 3 2 1 Figure 3.27: ffect of lower values of on the load line and Q-point. H.No. 40-D, Ground Floor, Jia Sarai, Near T, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016 Website: www.physicsbyfiziks.com mail: fiziks.physics@gmail.com 21
nstitute for NT/JF, GAT, T-JAM, M.Sc. ntrance, JST, TF and G in Physics xample: Determine the 12 following for the fixed-bias configuration of figure shown below. (a) (b) and Q Q Q 240k 2k 2. 2 10F ac Output (c) and (d) ac nput 1 10F 50 (e) Saturation level. Solution: (a) Q 12 0.7 240k 47.08 A 5047.08 2. m 35 Q Q 12 2.35mA 2.2k 6.83 (b) Q (c) 0.7 6.83 (d) Using double-subscript notation yields 0.7 6.83 6.13 With the negative sign revealing that the junction is reversed-biased, as it should be for linear amplification. (e) Q 12 c sat 5. 45m 2.2k 2. 35m, which is far from the saturation level and about one-half the maximum value for the design. H.No. 40-D, Ground Floor, Jia Sarai, Near T, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016 Website: www.physicsbyfiziks.com mail: fiziks.physics@gmail.com 22
nstitute for NT/JF, GAT, T-JAM, M.Sc. ntrance, JST, TF and G in Physics 3.6 mitter-stabilized ias ircuit The dc bias network of figure 3.28 contains an emitter resistor to improve the stability level over that of the fixed-bias configuration. v o v i 2 1 3.6.1 Q-Point The analysis will be performed by first examining the base-emitter loop and then using the results to investigate the collector-emitter loop. ase mitter Loop The base-emitter loop of the network can be redrawn as shown in 3.29. Writing Kirchhoff s voltage law around the indicated loop in the clockwise direction will result in the following equation: 1 0 1 Figure 3.28: JT circuit with emitter resistor. Grouping terms will then provide the following: 0 1. Note that the only difference between this equation for and that obtained for the fixedbias configuration is the term. 1 Figure 3.29: ase-emitter loop. H.No. 40-D, Ground Floor, Jia Sarai, Near T, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016 Website: www.physicsbyfiziks.com mail: fiziks.physics@gmail.com 23
nstitute for NT/JF, GAT, T-JAM, M.Sc. ntrance, JST, TF and G in Physics There is an interesting result that can be derived from equation 1 the equation is used to sketch a series network that would result in the same equation. Such is the case for the network of figure 3.30. Solving for the current will result in the same equation obtained above. Note that aside from the base-to-emitter voltage if the resistor is reflected back to the input base circuit by a factor 1. n other words, the emitter resistor, which is part of the collector emitter loop, appears as in the base-emitter loop. Since β is typically 50 or more, the emitter resistor 1 appears to be a great deal larger in the base circuit. 1 1 i Figure 3.30: Network derived from. Figure 3.31: eflected impedance level of. n general, therefore, for the configuration of figure 3.31, i 1 This equation is one that will prove useful in the analysis to follow. n fact, it provides a fairly easy way to remember equation 1. Using Ohm s law, we know that the current through a system is the voltage divided by the resistance of the circuit. For the base-emitter circuit the net voltage is plus reflected by 1.. The resistance levels are H.No. 40-D, Ground Floor, Jia Sarai, Near T, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016 Website: www.physicsbyfiziks.com mail: fiziks.physics@gmail.com 24
nstitute for NT/JF, GAT, T-JAM, M.Sc. ntrance, JST, TF and G in Physics ollector mitter Loop The collector-emitter loop is redrawn in figure 3.32. Writing Kirchhoff s voltage law for the indicated loop in the clockwise direction will result in Substituting and grouping terms gives The single-subscript voltage is the voltage from emitter to ground and is determined by while the voltage from collector to ground can be determined from 0 or and The voltage at the base with respect to ground can be determined from or Figure 3.32: ollector-emitter loop. 3.6.2 Saturation Level The collector saturation level or maximum collector current for an emitter-bias design can be determined using the same approach applied to the fixed-bias configuration: sat The addition of the emitter resistor reduces the collector saturation level below that obtained with a fixed-bias configuration using the same collector resistor. sat 0 Figure 3.33: Determining for sat the emitter-stabilized bias circuit. H.No. 40-D, Ground Floor, Jia Sarai, Near T, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016 Website: www.physicsbyfiziks.com mail: fiziks.physics@gmail.com 25
nstitute for NT/JF, GAT, T-JAM, M.Sc. ntrance, JST, TF and G in Physics 3.6.3 Load-Line Analysis The load-line analysis of the emitter-bias network is only slightly different from that encountered for the fixed-bias configuration. The level of as determined by equation 1 defines the level of on the characteristics of figure 3.34 (denoted ). Q Q point Q Figure 3.34: Load-Line for the emitter-bias configuration. The collector-emitter loop equation that defines the load line is the following: 0 as obtained for the fixed-bias configuration. hoosing 0 gives 0 as shown in figure 3.34. Different levels of down the load line. Q will, of course, move the Q-point up or H.No. 40-D, Ground Floor, Jia Sarai, Near T, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016 Website: www.physicsbyfiziks.com mail: fiziks.physics@gmail.com 26
nstitute for NT/JF, GAT, T-JAM, M.Sc. ntrance, JST, TF and G in Physics xample: For the emitter bias network of figure shown below, 20 determine: (a) (b) (c) (d) v i 430 k 10 F 2 k 10 F 50 v o (e) (f) (g) (h) sat Solution: (a) 20 0.7 1 430 k 511 k (b) 50 40.1 A 2.01 ma 19.3 40.1 481 k (c) A 20 2.01mA 2k 1k 13.97 (d) 20 2.01mA 2k 15.98 (e) 15.98 13.97 2.01 (f) 0.7 2.01 2.71 1k 40 F (g) 2.71 15.98 13.27 (reverse-biased as required) (h) sat 20 20 6.67 2k 1 k 3 k ma which is about twice the level of Q. H.No. 40-D, Ground Floor, Jia Sarai, Near T, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016 Website: www.physicsbyfiziks.com mail: fiziks.physics@gmail.com 27
nstitute for NT/JF, GAT, T-JAM, M.Sc. ntrance, JST, TF and G in Physics 3.7 oltage-divider ias n the previous bias configurations the bias current Q and voltage Q were a function of the current gain () of the transistor. However, since is temperature sensitive, specially for silicon transistors, and the actual value of beta is usually not well defined, it would be desirable to develop a bias circuit that is less dependent, or in fact, independent of the transistor beta. 1 1 v i 2 v o The voltage-divider bias configuration of figure 3.35 is such a network. f analyzed on an exact basis the sensitivity to changes in beta is quite small. 3.7.1 Q-point The input side of the network can be redrawn as shown in figure 3.36 for the dc analysis. The Thevenin equivalent network for the network to the left of the base terminal can then be found in the following manner. 2 Figure 3.35: oltage-divider bias configuration. 1 2 Figure 3.36: edrawing the input side of the network of figure 3.35. H.No. 40-D, Ground Floor, Jia Sarai, Near T, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016 Website: www.physicsbyfiziks.com mail: fiziks.physics@gmail.com 28
nstitute for NT/JF, GAT, T-JAM, M.Sc. ntrance, JST, TF and G in Physics Th Thevenin s esistance : The voltage source is replaced by a short-circuit equivalent as shown in figure 3.37. Th 1 2 1 2 1 2 Th Figure 3.37: Determining. TH Th Thevenin s oltage : The voltage source is returned to the network and 1 the open-circuit Thevenin voltage of figure 3.38 determined as follows: Applying the voltage-divider rule: Th 1 2 2 2 2 2 Th Figure 3.38: Determining. TH The Thevenin network is then redrawn as shown in figure 3.39 and Q can be determined by first applying Kirchhoff s voltage law in the clockwise direction for the loop indicated: 0 Th Th Th Th Th Th 1 Once is known the remaining quantities of the network can be found in the same manner as developed for the emitter-bias configuration. That is. The remaining equations for, and are also the same as obtained for the emitterbias configuration. Figure 3.39: Thevenin equivalent circuit. H.No. 40-D, Ground Floor, Jia Sarai, Near T, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016 Website: www.physicsbyfiziks.com mail: fiziks.physics@gmail.com 29
nstitute for NT/JF, GAT, T-JAM, M.Sc. ntrance, JST, TF and G in Physics 3.8.2 Transistor Saturation The output collector-emitter circuit for the voltage-divider configuration has the same appearance as the emitter-biased circuit. The resulting equation for the saturation current (when is set to zero volts on the schematic) is therefore the same as obtained for the emitter-biased configuration. That is, 3.8.3 Load-Line Analysis sat max The similarities with the output circuit of the emitter-biased configuration result in the same intersections for the load line of the voltage-divider configuration. The load line will therefore have the same appearance as that of figure 3.24, with. sat 0 and 0 m The level of is of course determined by a different equation for the voltage-divider bias and the emitter-bias configurations. xample: Determine the dc bias voltage and the current for the voltage-divider 22 configuration of figure shown below. Solution: Th 2 Th 1 39k3.9k TH 1 2 3.55k 39k 3.9k Th 2 3.9 k22 2 39 k 3.9 k 2 0.7 1 3.55k 141 1.5 k 1.3 6.05 A 3.55 k 211.5 k 140 6.05 A 0.85 ma 22 0.85 ma 10k 1.5k 12.22 v i 39 k 10 F 3.9 k 10 k 10 F 140 1.5k v o 50 F H.No. 40-D, Ground Floor, Jia Sarai, Near T, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016 Website: www.physicsbyfiziks.com mail: fiziks.physics@gmail.com 30
nstitute for NT/JF, GAT, T-JAM, M.Sc. ntrance, JST, TF and G in Physics 3.8 D ias with oltage Feedback An improved level of stability can also be obtained by introducing a feedback path from collector to base as shown in figure 3.40. v o v i 1 2 3.8.1 Q-point (ase-mitter Loop) Figure 3.41 shows the base-emitter loop for the voltage feedback configuration. Writing Kirchhoff s voltage law around the indicated loop in the clockwise direction will result in 0 t is important to note that the current through Figure 3.40: D ias with voltage feedback. is not but (where ). Thus Figure 3.41: ase-emitter loop for the network of Figure 3.40. 0. n general, therefore, the feedback path results in a reflection of the resistance the input circuit, much like the reflection of. back to H.No. 40-D, Ground Floor, Jia Sarai, Near T, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016 Website: www.physicsbyfiziks.com mail: fiziks.physics@gmail.com 31
nstitute for NT/JF, GAT, T-JAM, M.Sc. ntrance, JST, TF and G in Physics n general, the equation for had the following format: ' with the absence ' of for the fixed-bias configuration, for the emitter-bias setup (with 1 ), and for the collector-feedback arrangement. The voltage is the difference between two voltage levels. Q ollector-mitter Loop ' ' The collector-emitter loop for the network is provided in figure 3.42. Applying Kirchhoff s voltage law around the indicated loop in the clockwise direction will result in 0 0 and which is exactly as obtained for the emitterbias and voltage-divider bias configurations. 3.8.2 Saturation onditions Using the approximation the equation for the saturation current is the same as obtained for the voltage-divider and emitter-bias configurations. That is, sat 3.8.3 Load-Line Analysis ontinuing with the approximation max the voltage-divider and emitter-biased configurations. The level of the chosen bias configuration. Figure 3.42: ollector-emitter loop for the network of figure 3.40. will result in the same load line defined for Q will be defined by H.No. 40-D, Ground Floor, Jia Sarai, Near T, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016 Website: www.physicsbyfiziks.com mail: fiziks.physics@gmail.com 32
nstitute for NT/JF, GAT, T-JAM, M.Sc. ntrance, JST, TF and G in Physics xample: Determine the quiescent levels of and Q Q for the network of figure shown below. Solution: 10 10 0.7 250 k 90 4.7 k 1.2 k 250 k 4.7 k 10 F v o 9.3 9.3 25. k 531 k 781 k v i 10 F 90 11.91 A 90 11.91 1.07 ma Q Q 1.2 k 10 1.07mA 4.7k 1.2k 3.69 Q H.No. 40-D, Ground Floor, Jia Sarai, Near T, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016 Website: www.physicsbyfiziks.com mail: fiziks.physics@gmail.com 33