Bernhard Hofnlann-Wellenhof Herbert Lichtenegger Elmar Wasle GNSS - Global Navigation Satellite Systenls GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, and nl0re SpringerWienNewYork
Contents Abbreviations xxi 1 Introduction 1 1.1 The origins of surveying........... 1 1.2 Development of global surveying techniques. 1 1.2.1 Optical global triangulation... 2 1.2.2 Electromagnetic global trilateration 2 1.2.3 Satellite-based positioning.... 3 1.3 Positioning and navigating with satellites 8 1.3.1 Position determination 8 1.3.2 Velocity determination 9 1.3.3 Attitude determination 10 1.3.4 Terminology..... 11 2 Reference systems 13 2.1 Introduction... 13 2.2 Coordinate systems 15 2.2.1 Definitions 15 2.2.2 Transformation between celestial and terrestrial frames 17 2.2.3 Transformation between terrestrial frames 21 2.3 Time systems.... 22 2.3.1 Definitions. 22 2.3.2 Conversions. 23 2.3.3 Calendar.. 24 3 Satellite orbits 27 3.1 Introduction... 27 3.2 Orbit description... 27 3.2.1 Keplerian motion 27 3.2.2 Perturbed motion 33 3.2.3 Disturbing accelerations 35 3.3 Orbit determination.. 39 3.3.1 Keplerian orbit 40 3.3.2 Perturbed orbit 43 3.4 Orbit dissemination.. 47 3.4.1 Tracking networks 47
xiv Contents 3.4.2 Ephemerides 4 Satellite signals 4.1 Introduction... 4.1.1 Physical fundamentals 4.1.2 Propagation effects. 4.1.3 Frequency standards. 4.2 Generic signal structure.... 4.2.1 Signal design parameter 4.2.2 Carrier frequency. 4.2.3 Ranging code layer.. 4.2.4 Data-link layer... 4.2.5 Satellite multiplexing. 4.3 Generic signal processing... 4.3.1 Receiver design... 4.3.2 Radio frequency front-end 4.3.3 Digital signal processor. 4.3.4 Navigation processor 5 Observables 5.1 Data acquisition. 5.1.1 Code pseudoranges. 5.1.2 Phase pseudoranges 5.1.3 Doppler data.. 5.1.4 Biases and noise.. 5.2 Data combinations... 5.2.1 Linear phase pseudorange combinations 5.2.2 Code pseudorange smoothing 5.3 Atmospheric effects. 5.3.1 Phase and group velocity 5.3.2 Ionospheric refraction. 5.3.3 Tropospheric refraction. 5.3.4 Atmospheric monitoring 5.4 Relativistic effects... 5.4.1 Special relativity. 5.4.2 General relativity. 5.4.3 Relevant relativistic effects for GNSS 5.5 Antenna phase center offset and variation 5.5.1 General remarks. 5.5.2 Relative antenna calibration 5.5.3 Absolute antenna calibration 49 55 55 56 61 67 68 68 73 75 84 84 84 85 87 90 103 105 105 105 106 108 109 111 11 I 1J3 116 116 118 128 138 141 J41 144 144 148 148 150 150
Contents xv 5.5.4 Numerical investigation 152 5.6 Muitipath... 154 5.6.1 General remarks.. 154 5.6.2 Mathematical model 156 5.6.3 Multipath reduction. 158 6 Mathematical models for positioning 161 6.1 Point positioning... 161 6.1.1 Point positioning with code ranges.. 161 6.1.2 Point positioning with carrier phases. 163 6.1.3 Point positioning with Doppler data 165 6.1.4 Precise point positioning 166 6.2 Differential positioning... 169 6.2.1 Basic concept....... 169 6.2.2 DGNSS with code ranges 170 6.2.3 DGNSS wi th phase ranges 171 6.2.4 Local-area DGNSS 172 6.3 Relative positioning... 173 6.3.1 Basic concept... 173 6.3.2 Phase differences. 174 6.3.3 Corre1ations of the phase combinations 178 6.3.4 Static relative positioning... 183 6.3.5 Kinematic relative positioning... 185 6.3.6 Pseudokinematic relative positioning 187 6.3.7 Virtual reference stations....... 188 7 Data processing 193 7.1 Data preprocessing... 193 7.1.1 Data handling... 193 7.1.2 CycJe slip detection and repair 194 7.2 Ambiguity resolution.. 202 7.2.1 General aspects.. 202 7.2.2 Basic approaches. 205 7.2.3 Search techniques. 214 7.2.4 Ambiguity validation. 236 7.3 Adjustment, filtering, and quality measures 238 7.3.1 Theoretical considerations..... 238 7.3.2 Linearization of mathematicaj models 250 7.3.3 Network adjustment 257 7.3.4 Dilution of precision 262 7.3.5 Quality parameters. 266
XVI Contents 7.3.6 Accuracy measures 272 8 Data transformation 277 8.l Introduction... 277 8.2 Coordinate transformations.............. 277 8.2.1 Cartesian coordinates and eljipsoidal coordinates 277 8.2.2 Global coordinates and local-ievel coordinates 280 8.2.3 Ellipsoidal coordinates and plane coordinates 283 8.2.4 Height transformation. 290 8.3 Datum transformations. 293 8.3.1 Three-dimensional transformation 293 8.3.2 Two-dimensional transformation. 297 8.3.3 One-dimensional transformation 300 8.4 Combining GNSS and terrestrial data 302 8.4.1 Common coordinate system.. 302 8.4.2 Representation of measurement quantities 303 9 GPS 309 9.1 Introduction...... 309 9.1.1 Historical review 309 9.1.2 Project phases.. 309 9.1.3 Management and operation. 310 9.2 Reference systems 313 9.2.1 Coordinate system 313 9.2.2 Time system. 315 9.3 GPS services. 315 9.3.1 Standard positioning service 316 9.3.2 Precise positioning service. 318 9.3.3 Denial of accuracy and access 319 9.4 GPS segments.. 322 9.4. I Space segment 322 9.4.2 Control segment 324 9.5 Signal structure 327 9.5. I Carrier frequencies 329 9.5.2 PRN codes and modulation. 329 9.5.3 Navigation messages 337 9.6 Outlook. 339 9.6.1 Modemization 339 9.6.2 GPS III 340
Contents xvii 10 GLONASS 341 10.1 Introduction....... 341 10.1.1 Historical review 341 10.1.2 Project phases.. 342 10.1.3 Management and operation. 343 10.2 Reference systems.... 345 10.2.1 Coordinate system 345 10.2.2 Time system... 346 10.3 GLONASS services... 347 10.3.1 Standard positioning service 347 10.3.2 Precise positioning service 348 10.4 GLONASS segments.. 348 10.4.1 Space segment 348 10.4.2 Control segment 351 10.5 Signal structure..... 354 10.5.1 Carrier frequencies 356 10.5.2 PRN codes and modulation. 357 10.5.3 Navigation messages 360 10.6 Outlook........... 362 11 Galileo 365 11.1 Introduction....... 365 11.1.1 Historical review 365 11.1.2 Project phases.. 367 11.1.3 Management and operation. 368 11.2 Reference systems... 369 11.2.1 Coordinate system 369 11.2.2 Time system 369 11.3 Galileo services...... 370 11.3.1 Open service... 370 11.3.2 Commercial service 370 11.3.3 Safety-of-life service 371 11.3.4 Public regulated service 372 11.3.5 Search and rescue service 372 11.4 Galileo segments... 373 11.4.1 Space segment 374 11.4.2 Ground segment 378 11.5 Signal structure... 382 11.5.1 Carrier frequencies 383 11.5.2 PRN codes and modulation. 384 11.5.3 Navigation messages... 390
XVllJ Contents 11.6 Outlook. 394 12 More on GNSS 397 12.1 Global systems.................... 397 12.1.1 Comparison of GPS, GLONASS, and Galileo 397 12.1.2 Beidou-2jCompass. 401 12.1.3 Other global systems 403 12.2 Regional systems 406 12.2.1 Beidou-1. 406 12.2.2 QZSS. 409 12.2.3 Other regional systems 414 12.3 Differential systems. 415 12.3.1 Principles. 4]5 12.3.2 Differential correction domains 416 12.3.3 Examples of differential systems. 417 12.4 Augmentation systems.......... 420 12.4.1 Space-based augmentation systems 421 12.4.2 Ground-based augmentation systems 426 12.5 Assistance systems 429 12.6 Outlook. 430 13 Applications 431 13.1 Products of GNSS measurements. 431 13.1.1 Satellitecoordinates. 431 13.1.2 Position determination 431 13.1.3 Velocity determination 440 13.1.4 Attitude determination 44] 13.1.5 Time transfer.. 445 13.1.6 Other products. 445 13.2 Data transfer and formats 447 13.2.1 RTCM format. 447 13.2.2 RINEX format 449 13.2.3 NMEA format 450 13.3 System integration.. 450 13.3.1 GNSS and inertial navigation systems 452 13.3.2 Radionavigation plans 452 13.4 User segment. 453 13.4.1 Receiver features.. 453 13.4.2 Control networks.. 457 13.4.3 Information services 458 13.5 Selected applications... 460
Contents XIX 13.5. J Navigation.... 460 13.5.2 Surveying and mapping 464 13.5.3 Scientific applications... 465 14 Conclusion and outlook 467 References Subject index 471 501