Handbook of Biodiversity Methods Survey, Evaluation and Monitoring Edited by David Hill Matthew Fasham Graham Tucker Michael Shewry Philip Shaw CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Contents Preface y\cknowledgements Part I Planning GRAHAM TUCKkR, MATTHFW FASHAM, DAVID [ill. MICHAkF SHk'WRY, PHII.II' SHAW AND MAX WADk 1 Introduction to planning (,. 'IIICKI-.R, I). Mil I AND M. FASHAM 1.1 The purpose of surveying and monitoring 2 Planning a programme (.. TIICKTR, M. FASIIAM, D. 1'. SHAW AND M. WADI: 1.1., M. SHFAVRY, 2.1 Setting the objectives for the monitoring programme 2.2 Selection of methods for monitoring each attribute 2.3 Designing a sampling strategy 2.4 Reviewing the monitoring programme 2.5 Data recording and storage 2.6 Data analysis, interpretation and review 3 Biodiversity evaluation methods c;. TUC:KI-:R 3.1 Biodiversity values and evaluation purposes 3.2 A framework for ecological evaluations 3.3 Identification of valuable ecosystem components 3.4 Principles underlying the setting of conservation priorities 3.5 Species and habitat conservation priority lists 3.6 Site evaluations and selection of protected areas 3.7 Site conservation designations 3.8 Site evaluations for management planning 3.9 Site evaluations for Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) page xi xiii 17 23 42 46 49 68 72 81 88 95 96 Part II Habitats GRAHAM TUCKFR, MATTHTAV FASHAM, TIM RICH, MICK RFBANF, GI-ORGL PLTHRKFN, FIONA MCMFFCHAN AND DICK RIR.NIF: 4 Introduction to habitat evaluation 105 G. TUCKLR, AND M. I-ASHAM 4.1 How to use the Handbook: a recap 105 4.2 Habitat survey and monitoring 105 5 Habitat requirements and issues 107 T. RICH, G. PFTFRKFN, G. TUCKFR, I-'. MCMFIUIAN AM) I). DOBSON 5.1 Woodland and scrub 107 5.2 I.owland wood-pastures and parkland 114 5.3 Farmland boundary features 117 5.4 Grassland and herbaceous communities 121 5.5 Limestone pavement 124 5.6 Lowland and upland heathland 126 5.7 Fens, carr, marsh, swamp and reedbed 128 5.8 Lowland raised bog 130 5.9 Standing open water 132 5.10 Rivers and streams 136 5.11 Montane habitats 141 5.12 Blanket bog 143 5.13 Maritime boulders, rocks, cliffs and slopes 145 5.14 Shingle above high tide 147 5.15 Sand dunes and strandline vegetation 148 5.16 Saltmarsh 150 6 Methods for surveying habitats 154 6.1 General habitat survey and monitoring methods 154 R.V. BIRNIk, G. TUCKFR AND M. FASHAM 6.2 Physical attributes 195 M. FASHAM AND G. TUCKFR 6.3 River morphology and aquatic vegetation composition 197 G. TUCKFR
viii CONTENTS 6.4 Ground and shrub vegetation 201 T. RICH, M. RFBANK, M. FASHAM, F. MCMEECHAN AND D. DOBSON 6.5 Trees and woodland stands 222 G. PETERKEN AND M. EASHAM 12 Lichens 279 S. DAVEY, M. FASHAM AND D. DOBSON 12.1 Attributes for assessing condition 280 12.2 General methods 280 12.3 Lichen conservation evaluation 284 7 Surveying and monitoring management or environmental impacts M. REBANE, M. FASHAM AND G. TUCKER 7.1 Grazing and browsing 7.2 Burning 7.3 Erosion 7.4 Vegetation surveys in relation to developments 8 Habitat conservation evaluation G. TUCKER AND F. MCMEECHAN 8.1 Key evaluation considerations 8.2 Protection status in the UK and EU 8.3 Conservation status in the UK Part III Species 9 Introduction to species assessment 9.1 Species surveying and monitoring 10 General principles and methods for species M. FASHAM AND S. MUSTOE 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Terminology 10.3 Total counts 10.4 Timed searches 10.5 Quadrats 10.6 Distance sampling 10.7 Line and strip transects 10.8 Point counts 10.9 Trapping webs 10.10 Removal method 10.11 Mark-recapture techniques 11 Fungi R. WAI I ING, M. FASHAM AND I). DOBSON 237 237 240 243 244 246 253 253 255 255 2DJ 257 257 258 260 264 266 267 268 268 271 13 Bryophytes 288 G. ROTHERO, D. DOBSON AND M. EASHAM 13.1 Attributes for assessing condition 288 14 Aquatic macrophytes and algae N. 15 Vascular plants T. 16 17 13.2 General methods 13.3 Bryophyte conservation evaluation STEWART AND M. WADE 14.1 Attributes for assessing condition 14.2 General methods 14.3 Requirements for species of particular conservation importance 14.4 Aquatic macrophyte conservation evaluation RICH, V. HACK AND t. MCMEFCIIAN 15.1 Attributes for assessing condition 15.2 General methods 15.3 Vascular plant conservation evaluation Dragonflies and damselflies PLANT, R. SANDS AND M. FASHAM 16.1 Attributes for assessing condition 16.2 General methods 16.3 Odonata conservation evaluation Butterflies PLANT, R. SANDS AND M. FASHAM 17.1 Attributes for assessing condition 17.2 General methods 17.3 Butterfly conservation evaluation 289 292 295 296 296 300 301 303 305 307 318 327 328 328 329 333 11.1 Attributes for assessing condition 11.2 General methods 11.3 Fungus conservation evaluation 272 272 276 18 Moths PLANE, R. SANDS AND M. FASHAM 18.1 Attributes for assessing condition 18.2 General methods 335 335 336
Contents 18.3 Macromoth conservation evaluation 339 19 Other terrestrial invertebrates 341 P. DENNIS, C. PLANT, R. SANDS AND M. EASHAM 19.1 Attributes for assessing condition 342 19.2 General methods 342 19.3 Terrestrial invertebrate conservation evaluation 357 20 Aquatic invertebrates 359 P. KERRISON, T. NORMAN AND M. EASHAM 20.1 Attributes for assessing condition 359 20.2 General methods 360 20.3 Requirements for species of particular conservation importance 3 20.4 Aquatic invertebrate conservation evaluation 3 21 Fish 368 N. GILF-S, R. SANDS AND M. FASHAM 21.1 Attributes for assessing condition 368 21.2 General methods 375 21.3 Freshwater fish conservation evaluation 385 22 Amphibians 387 D. LATHAM, E. JONES AND M. FASHAM 22.1 Attributes for assessing condition 387 22.2 General methods 388 22.3 Amphibian conservation evaluation 401 23 Reptiles 404 D. LATHAM, E. JONES AND M. FASHAM 23.1 Attributes for assessing condition 404 23.2 General methods 404 23.3 Reptile conservation evaluation 410 24 Birds 412 S. MUSTOE, D. HILL, I). FROST AND G. TUCKER 24.1 Attributes for assessing condition 412 24.2 General methods 413 24.3 Some specific methods used in specialist E1A studies 418 24.4 Some key species regularly considered in EIA studies 420 24.5 Bird conservation evaluation 422 24.6 Protection status in the UK and EU 25 Bats R. STEBBINGS, H. MANSFIELD AND M. EASHAM 25.1 Attributes for assessing condition 25.2 General methods 25.3 Bat conservation evaluation 26 Other mammals A. BENNETT, P. RATCUFFK, F.. JONES, H. MANSFIELD AND R. SANDS 26.1 Attributes for assessing condition 26.2 Indirect methods 26.3 General methods 26.4 Direct methods 26.5 Requirements for species of particular conservation importance 26.6 Mammal conservation evaluation Appendix 1 Monitoring and reporting obligations under international consen'ation agreements Appendix 2 Relationship between BAP Priority Habitat and Broad Habitat categories and Habitats Directive nomenclature Appendix 3 Annotated list of key references for plant identification Lichens Bryophytes Charophytes Ferns Vascular plants ix 4 Determining appropriate quadrat size for vegetation sumph'm; Appendix 5 The relocation of permanent plots Mapping Marker posts Paint Buried metal markers Photographs Total Stations Global positioning systems (GPS).Appendix ft l :.quipment required for undertaking different types ofsunvv 427 433 433 438 446 455 460 464 469 473 478 493 496 496 497
CONTENTS Recommended sources of further information 519 Habitat requirements (Chapter 5) 519 Survey methods (Chapter 6) 519 Methods for species assessment (Chapter 10) 519 Fungi (Chapter 11) 520 Lichens (Chapter 12) 520 Bryophytes (Chapter 13) 521 Aquatic macrophytes and algae (Chapter 14) 521 Vascular plants (Chapter 15) 522 Dragonflies and damselflies (Chapter 16) 522 Butterflies (Chapter 17) 523 Moths (Chapter 18) 523 Other terrestrial invertebrates (Chapter 19) 523 Aquatic invertebrates (Chapter 20) Fish (Chapter 21) Amphibians (Chapter 22) Reptiles (Chapter 23) Birds (Chapter 24) Bats (Chapter 25) Other mammals (Chapter 26) References Glossary Monitoring terms and acronyms Statistical terms Index 524 524 525 526 526 529 529 530 551 551 552 556