Contents Preface to the Third Edition xvii Chapter 1 Importance of Antennas in Mobile Systems and Recent Trends 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Trends 9 1.2.1 Mobile Systems 13 1.2.2 Increasing Information Flow 15 1.2.3 Propagation 15 1.3 Modern Mobile Antenna Design 15 1.4 Objectives of This Book 19 References 22 Chapter 2 Essential Techniques in Mobile Antenna Systems Design 25 2.1 Mobile Communication Systems 25 2.1.1 Technologies in Mobile Communications 25 2.1.2 Frequencies Used in Mobile Systems 31 2.1.3 System Design and Antennas 33 2.2 Fundamentals in Land Mobile Propagation 34 2.2.1 Propagation Problems in Land Mobile Communications 34 2.2.2 Multipath Propagation Fundamentals 36 2.2.3 Classification of Multipath Propagation Models: NB, WB, and UWB 38 2.2.4 Spatio-Temporal Propagation Channel Model 40 2.2.5 Relation Between Space Correlation Characteristics and Space Diversity Effect 44 2.2.6 Propagation Modeling for OFDM 47 2.2.7 Propagation Studies for UWB 50 References 51 vii
viii Chapter 3 Advances in Mobile Propagation Prediction Methods 55 3.1 Introduction 55 3.2 Macrocells 55 3.2.1 Definition of Parameters 57 3.2.2 Empirical Path Loss Models 58 3.2.3 Physical Models 65 3.2.4 Comparison of Models 76 3.2.5 Computerized Planning Tools 76 3.2.6 Conclusions 77 3.3 Microcells 78 3.3.1 Dual-Slope Empirical Models 79 3.3.2 Physical Models 81 3.3.3 Nonline-of-Sight Models 86 3.3.4 Microcell Propagation Models: Discussion 92 3.3.5 Microcell Shadowing 93 3.3.6 Conclusions 93 3.4 Picocells 93 3.4.1 Empirical Models of Propagation Within Buildings 94 3.4.2 Empirical Models of Propagation into Buildings 97 3.4.3 Physical Models of Indoor Propagation 101 3.4.4 Constitutive Parameters for Physical Models 105 3.4.5 Propagation in Picocells: Discussion 105 3.4.6 Multipath Effects 106 3.4.7 Conclusions 108 3.5 Megacells 108 3.5.1 Shadowing and Fast Fading 110 3.5.2 Local Shadowing Effects 111 3.5.3 Empirical Narrowband Models 113 3.5.4 Statistical Models 115 3.5.5 Physical-Statistical Models for Built-Up Areas 122 3.5.6 Wideband Models 131 3.5.7 Multisatellite Correlations 131 3.5.8 Overall Mobile-Satellite Channel Model 133 3.6 The Future 134 3.6.1 Intelligent Antennas 134 3.6.2 Multidimensional Channel Models 135 3.6.3 High-Resolution Data 135 3.6.4 Analytical Formulations 135 3.6.5 Physical-Statistical Channel Modeling 136 3.6.6 Real-Time Channel Predictions 136 3.6.7 Overall 136 References 137
ix Chapter 4 Antennas for Base Stations 141 4.1 Basic Techniques for Base Station Antennas 141 4.1.1 System Requirements 141 4.1.2 Types of Antennas 143 4.1.3 Radio Zone Design 144 4.1.4 Diversity 146 4.2 Design and Practice of Japanese Systems 151 4.2.1 Multiband Antennas 151 4.2.2 Remote Beam Tilting System 157 4.2.3 Antennas for Radio Blind Areas 158 4.2.4 Antennas for CDMA Systems 164 4.3 Adaptive Antenna Systems 170 4.3.1 Personal Handy Phone System 170 4.3.2 W-OAM 172 4.3.3 i-burst System 173 4.3.4 Experimental System of Adaptive Array for WCDMA 175 4.3.5 Experimental System of Adaptive Array for CDMA2000 1xEV-DO 176 4.4 Design and Practice II (European Systems) 177 4.4.1 Antenna Configurations 179 4.4.2 Antenna Solutions 187 4.4.3 Antenna Units 195 4.4.4 Antenna Development Trends 203 References 208 Chapter 5 Antennas for Mobile Terminals 213 5.1 Basic Techniques for Mobile Terminal Antennas 213 5.1.1 General 213 5.1.2 Brief Historical Review of Design Concept 215 5.1.3 Modern Antenna Technology 217 5.2 Design and Practice of Antennas for Handsets I 219 5.2.1 Some Fundamental Issues 220 5.2.2 Various Multiband Antenna Concepts 226 5.2.3 Antenna Integration and Some Practical Issues 239 5.2.4 The Multichannel Antenna Applications 245 5.2.5 Human Body Interaction with Terminal Antennas and Some Measurement Methods 257 5.3 Design and Practice of Antennas for Handsets 266 5.3.1 Multiband and Broad Band Antenna Technologies 268 5.3.2 Diversity Antenna Technologies 274 5.3.3 Antenna Technologies Mitigating Human Body Effect 287 5.3.4 Antenna Technologies for Reducing SAR 298
x 5.3.5 Technique of Omitting Balun 304 5.3.6 Technology of Downsizing PIFA 307 5.4 Evaluation of Antenna Performance 309 5.4.1 Measurement Method Using Optical Fiber 309 References 313 Chapter 6 Radio Frequency Exposure and Compliance Standards for Mobile Communication Devices 321 6.1 Introduction 322 6.2 Physical Parameters 322 6.3 Types of RF Safety Standards 323 6.4 Exposure Standards 325 6.4.1 ICNIRP 326 6.4.2 IEEE C95.1-2005 328 6.4.3 Similarities and Differences Between the 1998 ICNIRP Guidelines and IEEE C95.1-2005 330 6.4.4 Regulations Based on Older Standards 330 6.5 Compliance Standards 333 6.5.1 Main Features of IEEE 1528-2003 (Including 1528a-2005) and IEC 62209-1 333 6.5.2 Other Standards Related to Mobile Communication 339 6.6 Discussion and Conclusions 339 References 341 Chapter 7 Applications of Modern EM Computational Techniques: Antennas and Humans in Personal Communications 343 7.1 Introduction 343 7.2 Definition of Design Parameters for Handset Antennas 347 7.2.1 Absorbed Power and Specific Absorption Rate 347 7.2.2 Directivity and Gain 348 7.2.3 Antenna Impedance and S 11 348 7.3 Finite-Difference Time-Domain Formulation 349 7.4 Eigenfunction Expansion Method 351 7.4.1 EEM Implementation 351 7.4.2 Hybridization of the EEM and MoM 352 7.5 Results Using EEM 353 7.5.1 Human Head Model 353 7.5.2 EM Interaction Characterizations 354 7.5.3 Effects of Size of the Head Model: Adult and Child 358 7.5.4 Comparison Between Homogeneous and Multilayered Spheres 360 7.5.5 Vertical Location of Antennas 361 7.5.6 Comparison with EEM and FDTD 364
xi 7.5.7 Anatomical Head Versus Spherical Head 368 7.5.8 Directional Antennas 370 7.5.9 High-Frequency Effect 372 7.6 Results Using the FDTD Method 376 7.6.1 Tissue Models 376 7.6.2 Input Impedance and the Importance of the Hand Position 378 7.6.3 Gain Patterns 383 7.6.4 Near Fields and SAR 384 7.7 Assessment of Dual-Antenna Handset Diversity Performance 389 7.7.1 Dual-Antenna Handset Geometries 390 7.7.2 Simulated Assessment of Diversity Performance 390 7.7.3 Experimental Assessment of Diversity Performance 392 7.7.4 Results 394 References 396 Chapter 8 Digital TV Antennas for Land Vehicles 399 8.1 Reception Systems 399 8.1.1 Digital Television Services in Japan 399 8.1.2 Problems of Mobile Reception 400 8.1.3 Diversity Reception Methods 400 8.1.4 Demonstration 402 8.2 Digital Television Antennas 405 8.2.1 Quarter Glass Antenna for a Van 405 8.2.2 Thin Antenna 407 8.2.3 Omnidirectional Pattern Synthesis Technique for a Car 408 8.2.4 Antennas Currently on the Market 410 References 415 Chapter 9 Antennas for the Bullet Train 417 9.1 Introduction 417 9.2 Train Radio Communication Systems 418 9.3 Antenna Systems 419 9.3.1 LCX Cable 419 9.3.2 Train Antenna 421 References 425 Chapter 10 Antennas for ITS 427 10.1 General 427 10.2 Antenna Design 429 10.2.1 Communication Beam Coverage 429 10.2.2 Antenna Fundamental Design 431
xii 10.2.3 Microstrip Antenna Design 435 10.2.4 Communication Coverage 441 10.2.5 Multiple Reflections 442 10.3 Field Strength in Communication Area 443 10.3.1 Multiple Reflections from Canopies 443 10.3.2 Mitigation Using an Absorber at the ETC Gate 444 10.3.3 Propagation in DSRC Coverage 448 10.3.4 Data Rate of DSRC 450 10.4 Antennas for DSRC 453 10.5 Applications for DSRC 453 References 457 Chapter 11 Antennas for Mobile Satellite Systems 459 11.1 Introduction 459 11.2 System Requirements for Vehicle Antennas 461 11.2.1 Mechanical Characteristics 461 11.2.2 Electrical Characteristics 461 11.2.3 Propagation Problems 465 11.3 Omnidirectional Antennas for Mobile Satellite Communications 467 11.3.1 Overview 467 11.3.2 Quadrifilar Helical Antenna 467 11.3.3 Crossed-Drooping Dipole Antenna 468 11.3.4 Patch Antenna 469 11.4 Directional Antennas for Mobile Satellite Communications 470 11.4.1 Antennas for INMARSAT 470 11.4.2 Directional Antennas in the ETS-V Program 481 11.4.3 Airborne Phased Array Antenna in the Domestic Satellite Phone Program 489 11.4.4 Directional Antennas in the MSAT Program 490 11.4.5 Directional Antennas in the Ku-Band CBB Program 495 11.5 Antenna Systems for GPS 498 11.5.1 General Requirements for GPS Antennas 498 11.5.2 Quadrifilar Helical Antennas 502 11.5.3 Microstrip Antennas 504 11.6 Multiband Antennas for Future GPS/ITS Services 507 11.6.1 Slot Ring Multiband Antenna for Future Dual Bands (L 1,L 2 ) GPS 507 11.6.2 Microstrip Multiband Antennas for GPS, VICS, and DSRC 517 11.7 Satellite Constellation Systems and Antenna Requirements 523 11.7.1 Constellation Systems and Demands on Antenna Design 523 11.7.2 Handset Antennas for Satellite Systems 526 References 538
xiii Chapter 12 UWB Antennas 543 12.1 UWB Systems: Introduction 543 12.2 Requirements for UWB Antennas 544 12.2.1 Basic Principle of UWB Antennas 544 12.2.2 Modeling and Structure of Feeding Points 545 12.2.3 Current Distributions of Circular Disc Monopole Antenna 549 12.3 Characteristics of Popular UWB Antennas 551 12.3.1 Three-Dimensional UWB Antennas 552 12.3.2 Planar UWB Antennas 555 12.3.3 CPW Feed 557 12.3.4 Multilayer Technologies 561 12.3.5 Band-Rejection for Coexistence with Other Wireless Systems 562 12.4 Wire-Structured UWB Antennas and Wire-Grid Modeling Simulation 565 12.4.1 High Efficiency Moment Method 565 12.5 UWB Antennas in Specific Wireless Environments 567 12.5.1 UWB Antennas Used in Unlicensed and Autonomous Wireless Environments 567 12.5.2 Measurements of Multipath Propagation Environments for UWB Antennas 568 12.5.3 Transmission Characteristics of UWB Antennas and Effects of the Human Body 569 12.5.4 UWB Antennas Near the Human Body 574 12.6 UWB Antenna Evaluation Indexes 576 12.7 UWB Antenna Measurements 577 12.7.1 Radiation Pattern Measurements 577 12.7.2 Impedance Measurements 578 12.7.3 Scale Model Measurements 579 12.7.4 Impedance Measurements with Two Coaxial Cables 580 12.8 Integrated Antenna Design Approach Based on LSI Technology 583 12.9 Radio Wave Resource Sharing with Technology Leadership and the Role of the Antenna 583 References 584 Chapter 13 Antennas for RFID 589 13.1 The Characteristics of an RFID System 589 13.1.1 What Is RFID? 589 13.1.2 Operating Frequencies 591 13.1.3 Operating Principles 592 13.1.4 Read Range 595 13.2 Reader Antennas 596 13.2.1 Fixed Reader 596 13.2.2 Mobile Reader 599
xiv 13.3 Tag Antennas 605 13.3.1 Structure of a Tag Antenna 605 13.3.2 Impedance Matching 607 13.3.3 Tags on Metallic Surface 609 13.3.4 Bandwidth-Enhanced Tag Antennas 611 13.3.5 SAW Tags 612 13.4 Measurement of Tag Antennas 612 13.4.1 Measurement of the Tag Antenna Impedance 613 13.4.2 Read Range Measurement 614 13.4.3 Efficiency Measurement 615 References 616 Chapter 14 Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO) Systems 619 14.1 Introduction 619 14.2 Diversity in Wireless Communications 620 14.2.1 Time Diversity 620 14.2.2 Frequency Diversity 621 14.2.3 Space Diversity 622 14.3 Multiantenna Systems 623 14.4 MIMO Systems 624 14.5 Channel Capacity of the MIMO Systems 627 14.6 Channel Known at the Transmitter 628 14.6.1 Water-Filling Algorithm 629 14.7 Channel Unknown at the Transmitter 629 14.7.1 Alamouti Scheme 630 14.8 Diversity-Multiplexing Trade-Off 631 14.9 MIMO Under an Electromagnetic Viewpoint 632 14.9.1 Case Study 1 634 14.9.2 Case Study 2 635 14.9.3 Case Study 3 635 14.9.4 Case Study 4 639 14.9.5 Case Study 5 641 14.10 Conclusions 643 References 644 Chapter 15 Smart Antennas 647 15.1 Definition 647 15.2 Why Smart Antennas? 649 15.3 Introduction 650 15.4 Background 652
xv 15.5 Beam Forming 653 15.5.1 Minimum Mean Square Error 655 15.5.2 Minimum Variance Distortionless Response 656 15.6 Direct Data Domain Least Squares (D 3 LS) Approaches to Adaptive Processing Based on a Single Snapshot of Data 659 15.6.1 Eigenvalue Method 662 15.6.2 Forward Method 663 15.6.3 Backward Method 665 15.6.4 Forward-Backward Method 666 15.7 Simulations 667 15.8 Conclusion 671 References 671 Appendix A Glossary 675 A.1 Catalog of Antenna Types 675 A.1.1 Linear Antennas 676 A.1.2 Material Loading 678 A.1.3 Planar Antenna 679 A.1.4 Broadband and Multiband Antennas 680 A.1.5 Balance-Unbalance Transforming 681 A.1.6 Arrays and Diversity Systems 681 A.1.7 Recent Innovative Concepts 682 References 682 A.1.8 Key to Symbols and Acronyms Used in Sections A.2 to A.3 703 A.2 Land Mobile Systems 704 A.2.1 Automobiles 704 A.2.2 Portable Equipment 711 A.2.3 Trains 718 A.2.4 Base Stations 719 A.2.5 Satellite Systems 723 A.2.6 UWB 727 A.2.7 RFID 729 A.3 Typical Antenna Types and Their Applications 732 Acronyms and Abbreviations 735 List of Contributors 739 Index 747