Arc Hazard Assessment for DC Applications in the Transit Industry

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1 Arc Hazard Assessment for DC Applications in the Transit Industry Kenneth S.Y. Cheng Kinectrics Inc. Toronto, Canada Stephen L. Cress Kinectrics Inc. Toronto, Canada Donald J. Minini Excalibur Associates, Inc. Connecticut, United States I TRODUCTIO During accidental faults on electrical power systems, workers may be exposed to hazards from electrical arcs. A prime concern is the exposure of workers to the intense radiated component of the arc energy, which has the potential to cause skin burns. In the United States of America, it has been reported that approximately 8% of electrical injuries are due to burns from exposure to radiant and convective energy from electrical arcs [1]. Further studies show that between 1 and 15 workers are hospitalized everyday due to burns caused by arc flash [2]. Safety programs including arc hazard analysis are dedicated to protecting workers from burns caused by electric arcs. Arc hazard analysis programs have been implemented by electric utilities and industries across North America and similar programs have been established in some public transportation organizations. These programs are conducted to select appropriate Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) for employees to limit burns to levels that are considered curable. Safety regulations such as Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) states clearly that it is the employers responsibilities to ensure that the employees are adequately protected (OSHA l,6,iii states that the employer shall ensure that each employee who is exposed to the hazards of flames or electric arcs does not wear clothing that could increase the extent of injury.). In the past few years, several corporations had been heavily penalized for their negligence. One of the more severe penalties charged by OSHA can be found in reference [3]. Assessment of thermal radiation from arcs is required for both Alternating Current (AC) and Direct Current (DC) electrical systems. A significant amount of testing and computational method development has been conducted related to the incident radiated energy that can be produced from AC faults [5], [6], [7]. This has resulted in a number of useful tools for assessing AC arc hazards in various industrial and utility work situations related to AC power systems (e.g. NFPA 7E, IEEE 1584, ArcPro TM ). There has been, however, a lack of test data and scientific algorithm development for the purpose of assessing DC arc hazard analysis. DC arc exposure might occur at locations with sizable battery banks and rectifiers such as in power plants or in the transportation or railway sectors. To-date, there is no single set of equations that can be used to evaluate all DC arc hazard situations. Several reviews of possible methodologies for DC arc hazard computations have been published [8], [9]. In this paper, some of the most relevant methods are reviewed and of most significance, these methods are compared to test data from novel DC arc tests conducted at Kinectrics High Current Laboratory (e.g. the tests for Bruce Power and Coast Mountain Bus Company). In particular the transit industry should find this information relevant to conducting due diligence arc hazard studies on rail and transit systems involving DC power at 6V and below. In a transit industry survey conducted for Kinectrics Inc., it was apparent that presently, transit regulators and standard developers such as the Federal Railway Administration (FRA), Federal Transit Administration (FTA) and the American Public Transit Association (APTA) have no inspection, compliance or standard programs that deal specifically with arc hazard assessment. For guidance on arc hazard assessment, corporations in each State generally default to Federal or State OSHA safety regulations (which applies NFPA 7E as the standard for compliance). Ultimately, it is clear that transit employers are obligated to ensure that workers who may be exposed to electric arcs must be clothed to prevent enhanced injury. Rulings have been awarded against transit companies as illustrated in reference [4], which describes one of the highest awards made to an ex-railroad worker. Survey results indicated that many rail companies in North America are aware of the need

2 for arc flash safety programs; nevertheless, only a few have taken the initiative to put these in place and these are generally at the early stages of program development. One of the difficulties faced by these organizations is how to compute arc hazards related to DC electric systems. Electric Arcs An electric arc is the passage of current through ionized air. The axial temperature of an arc column can reach 15, to 25, C. In addition to the radiated thermal energy, tremendous amounts of noise (15 db) and pressure (2 lb/ft 2 ) can also be released from electric arcs. Accidental arcs can be caused by foreign object bridging of phases, dielectric breakdown and mechanical failure. The severity of incident energy levels (which will be the focus of this paper) released from electric arcs is dependent on the following parameters: System voltage Available fault current Fault duration Arc length or gap distance Working distance Electrode materials Enclosure around arc AC or DC Number of phases involved Arc motion Figure 1 to Figure 4 show sample waveforms of AC and DC arcs. The waveforms were obtained from controlled laboratory experiments at Kinectrics Figure 1. AC Arc Current Waveform Figure 2. AC Arc Voltage Waveform Figure 3. DC Arc Current Waveform Figure 4. DC Arc Voltage Waveform As seen from the figures, there exist considerable differences between the AC and DC arcs. Below are some of the major differences: AC arcs encounter zero-crossing, but DC arcs do not. Therefore, under the assumption that all other parameters remain

3 constant, DC arcs generate more energy than AC arcs because DC arcs will not have ignition and re-ignition. The diameter of DC arc s plasma column remain constant, AC arcs plasma column expands and contracts. DC arcs are more difficult to extinguish. DC arcs decay characteristics are dependent on the source (ie battery systems have a finite capacity to sustain the arc). DC ARC TESTI G AT KI ECTRICS Kinectrics Inc. has conducted the pioneering DC arc hazard tests and modeling at their unique High Current Laboratory. Kinectrics has recently completed DC arc flash test for both Bruce Power (power generation company in Ontario, Canada) and Coast Mountain Bus Company (public transit company in Vancouver, Canada). Figure 5 shows a sample open-air arc flash test conducted at Kinectrics High Current Laboratory. Fault duration:.1 to 2 seconds Working distance: 6, 12, 22 and 34 Arcing environment: Open air and enclosed Electrode configurations: Vertical, horizontal and series With the results obtained from the various tests, Kinectrics has examined the relationship between incident energy and working distances from DC arcs, estimated arcing fault current from bolted fault current, and derived equations to predict the amount of incident energy released from DC arcs. Kinectrics has also compared the measured incident energy and ArcPro TM predictions. The following subsections show the sample test results and some of the DC arc hazard developments achieved by Kinectrics. 13 V and 26 V DC Test Results Figure 6 shows the measured heat flux from DC arcs of various lengths and at various available arcing currents for tests using a 26 V DC source. Controlled DC arcs were generated between 2 vertical electrodes. At 26 VDC, 1 and 2 inch arc could easily be sustained at higher arcing faults. The probability of sustaining arcs is highly dependent on the electrode configuration, the source voltage and on the current. Figure 5. Sample Arc Flash Test For the DC testing, a special low-impedance transformer was used to obtain the desired voltage and current range. The output of the transformer was connected to one or two high-power three-phase rectifiers to produce a DC power source. The current magnitude was controlled by adding resistance or inductance in the circuit on the output of the rectifier. Precise control of arc times was controlled by a test sequencer and a synchronous make-switch and circuit breaker. DC arc flash testing at Kinectrics has covered the following range of variables: System voltage: 125 V, 25 V and 6V DC Bolted fault current: 1 ka to 25 ka Arc gap distance:.2 to 6 Figure 6. 26V DC Heat 12 with 1 and 2 Arc Gap Extrapolating the heat flux data measured for 26V arcs, graphs of incident energy at 12 inches as a function of time were produced for different fault currents levels. The threshold of the hazard/risk categories set by NFPA 7E were also plotted on these graphs for 26V DC arcs. Figure 7 shows incident energy as a function of time for 26 V DC arcs with 2 gaps. Such curves can serve as a guide for the incident energy from DC arcs for a range of possible fault conditions.

4 measured values were averages. Also, the computed values are intended to be more conservative and more representative of the maximum hazards. 6 V DC Test Results Figure 7. FPA 7E Categories 12 Working Distance; 2 Arc Gap Distance; 26 V DC DC vs. AC Incident Energy Comparisons can be made between the results from the AC and DC tests with respect to the incident energy vs. fault current with a fixed arc gap. Comparisons were made using data from tests with 1 and 2 gaps and heat flux measured at 24 away from the arc. Similar fault currents were used for both AC and DC arcs. The curves in Figure 8 illustrate the results of the measurements at 26 V DC compared to AC with 1 and 2 arc gap distances. Note that DC arc energy is consistently higher than AC arc energy for the same current (DC vs. AC rms). The average value per unit difference in the range from 2, A to 1, A was estimated to be approximately V DC arc flash tests were performed in both open-air (electrodes pointing towards one another) and enclosed (electrodes pointing downwards and electrodes pointing outwards). It was observed that with arcs in a box, the two electrode configurations make very little differences with respect to the amount of incident energy captured by the calorimeter. Regardless of which direction the electrodes point, once the arc is generated, radiated incident energy will be deflected off the sidewalls of the box and captured by the calorimeter at the front opening. This also explains that radiated incident energy from an enclosed environment is always higher than that from an open environment if all other parameters remain unchanged. The objective of the test was to derive equations to calculate arcing fault current at 6 V DC and ultimately, to predict the amount of incident energy released from DC arcs at a specified working distance away from the potential arc. The empirically derived equations are as follows: = ( 1) =( ) (.4793 ln( )+1.27).1 6 where: is the arcing fault current in ka is the bolted fault current in ka G is the arc gap distance in inches t is the fault duration in seconds D is the working distance in inches The equations were derived under the following laboratory testing conditions: Figure 8. AC vs. DC Heat Flux Comparison at 24 Working Distance Figure 8 includes the ArcPro TM computation results along with the measured data. It shows that DC average currents produce higher incident energies than numerically equivalent AC rms currents. ArcPro TM computations are generally higher than the AC measured values, mostly due to the fact that the 6 V DC Bolted fault current of 2 ka to 25 ka Arc gap distance of up to 6 (depending on the configuration of the electrodes and the available fault current, arcs may not be sustainable at an arc gap distance of 6 )

5 As with all curve fit approximations, the above equations should be considered valid within the range of parameters in the data used to derive the equations. Figure 9 shows the relationship between bolted fault currents and arcing fault currents with arc gap distances of 1, 3 and 6. As obvious from the curves, there is an inverse correlation between the arcing fault currents and the arc gap distances. Arcing Fault Current (ka) Bolted Fault Current vs. Arcing Fault Current at 6 V DC 1" Arc Gap 3" Arc Gap 6" Arc Gap Bolted Fault Current (ka) Figure 9. Arcing Fault Current vs. Bolted Fault Current under Various Arc Gap distances at 6 V DC It can be noted from Figure 9 that at 2 ka or below, the arcing fault current is approximately equal to the bolted fault current. For the specific lab setup and tests conducted, the arcing fault currents always remain between 64% and 97% of the bolted fault currents. To identify how incident energy from DC arcs varies with working distances, fault durations were normalized as seen in Figure 1 below. As a result, incident energy can be plotted as heat flux. For instance, if the working distance is doubled, the incident energy would decrease by a factor of four. This relationship is true only under the circumstances that the energy readings captured by the calorimeters are 1% radiated thermal energy released by the arc, e.g. This is likely true for the more distant measurements but calorimeters as close as 6 are likely to be influenced by contact with hot arc plasma. In testing this generally leads to a wide range of incident energy values for calorimeters that are very close to the arc. The following figure shows similar information as Figure 7, it displays the resulting incident energy with the arcing fault currents and durations. The curves can be extrapolated to predict incident energy levels of longer duration. The incident energies were measured at 12 away from the arc with an 1 arc gap. Incident Energy (cal/cm2) Incident Energy at 12" vs. Arc Duration for 1" Gap Arcing Current at 6 VDC 2 ka 8.6 ka 13.4 ka Cat Cat 1 Cat 2 Cat Arc Duration (s) Figure 11. Arcing Fault Current and Duration vs. Incident Energy Heat Flux (cal/cm2/s) DC Heat Flux Comparison for 1" Arc for Various Distance.1 second arc.5 second arc Distance from Arc (inches) Figure 1. Heat Flux vs. Working Distances As expected, heat flux or incident energy varies inversely with the square of the working distances. COMPARISO OF DC ARC MODELS At the time of writing, there is no standardized and verified model to determine incident energy released from DC arcs. Another DC arc flash hazard equation is proposed in a paper by Doan [8]. This set of equations, as shown below, is applicable for DC systems rated up to 1 V. where: =.5 is the system voltage in volts is the system resistance, in ohms is the arcing time in seconds

6 R is the working distance from the arc, in centimeters is the estimated DC arc flash incident energy at the maximum power point, in cal/cm 2 For exposures where the arc is in a box or enclosure, the proposal suggests using a 3-times multiplying factor for the resulting incident energy value. Based on laboratory test results, this calculation is shown to be conservative and estimates higher than measured incident energy levels. A comparison of Doan s equation 1, ArcPro TM with a modification factor derived from the DC arc flash tests at 12 V and 26 V DC, and the test results at 6 V DC is shown in the following figure. Heat Flux (cal/cm2/s) Heat Flux at 12 inches vs. Arcing Fault Current 6 VDC 1" Arc Gap 6" Arc Gap Doan Arcpro 1" Arcpro 6" Arcing Fault Current (ka) Figure 12. Comparison of Existing DC Arc Flash Evaluation Methods As seen from Figure 12, under the specific scenario, ArcPro TM with factor matches well with the results from the 6 V DC test. It is also important to note that Doan s equation is designed for worst case energy and produced the same results independent of the value of the arc gap. RECOMME DATIO S An interim approach for performing arc flash evaluation at DC equipment could include: 1. ArcPro TM with factors has been verified for the following conditions: 13 V DC to 26 V DC 1 It is assumed that I bf = 2 I arc, where I arc is measured from the laboratory experiment at Kinectrics Bolted fault current of 2 ka to 25 ka Arc gap distance of up to.5 for 13 V DC systems and up to 2 for 26 V DC systems 2. The set of 6 V DC equations Kinectrics derived should be used under the following conditions: 6 V DC Bolted fault current of 2 ka to 25 ka Arc gap distance of up to 6 (depending on the configuration of the electrodes and the available fault current, arcs may not be sustainable at an arc gap distance of 6 ) 3. In situations where the case being assessed does not fall in 1. or 2. the maximum arc energy equation proposed by Doan could be used as a conservative approach. Further testing and studies are required in order to derive more practical models and formulae. CO CLUSIO S Arc hazard analysis is a safety assessment, dedicated to protecting workers who might be exposed to radiated thermal energy from electric arcs. In this paper, the focus is on incident energy released from DC arcs, which should be of particular interest to the transit industry. OSHA states clearly that it is the employers responsibilities to ensure that the employees are adequately protected with PPE. Based on the research and testing conducted at Kinectrics, the following can be concluded: 1. At present, there is no standardized and verified model to determine incident energy released from DC arcs. 2. An initial set of DC arc measurements from Kinectrics laboratories can be used as a verification tool for proposed DC arc hazard analysis tools. 3. The DC arc flash formulas proposed by Doan is conservative compared to measurements. Use of Arcpo TM and the 6 V DC arc hazard equation developed by Kinectrics, is suitable within the range of parameters for which these models have been verified.

7 4. There is a need for additional development of DC arc models. Extrapolation may produce misleading results. 5. It is critical to understand the applications and limitations of the existing models and equations. 6. The transit industry with DC systems for 3 rd rail and cantenary applications should find the test results and preliminary computation methods mentioned in this paper useful for initial DC arc hazard assessments. ACK OWLEDGEME TS [6] Doughty, R., Neal, T. and Floyd, L.. Predicting Incident Energy to Better Manage the Electric Arc Hazard on 6 V Power distribution Systems, United States. [7] ArcPro TM Software, Kinectrics Inc.. [8] Doan, D.. Arc Flash Calculations for Exposures to DC Systems, Delaware, United States. [9] Ammerman, R. et al.. DC Arc Models and Incident Energy Calculations, Colorado, United States. The authors would like to thank the following individuals and corporate for their contributions on this paper: Carl Keyes, Associate, Kinectrics Inc. Claude Maurice, High Current Laboratory Manager, Kinectrics Inc. Coast Mountain Bus Company Bruce Power Inc. REFERE CES [1] IEEE Standards Association: Industry Backs IEEE/ FPA Arc Flash Testing Program with Initial Donations of $1.25 Million. Retrieved May 8, 28, from Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers website: l [2] Neitzel, D. (26). The Hazards of Electricity Do You Know What They Are?, Texas, United States. [3] Harrell, J.. "Pieper Electric to challenge OSHA citations". Daily Reporter (Milwaukee). FindArticles.com. March 25, /ai_n / [4] Stannard, E.. "Injured Ex-Metro-North Worker Awarded $1.1M". New Haven Register. April 13, aa3ctrailaward4131.txt?viewmode=fullstory [5] Lee, R. (1982). The Other Electrical Hazard: Electric Arc Blast Burns, United States.

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