Lecture Integrated circuits era
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- Clemence Rogers
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1 Lecture Integrated circuits era Transistor was first invented by William.B.Shockley, Walter Brattain and John Bardeen of Bell laboratories. In 1961, first IC was introduced. Levels of Integration:- i) SSI: - (10-100) transistors => Example: Logic gates ii) MSI: - ( ) => Example: counters iii) LSI: - ( ) => Example: 8-bit chip iv) VLSI: - ( ) => Example: 16 & 32 bit up v) ULSI: - ( ) => Example: Special processors, virtual reality machines, smart sensors. Moore s Law:- The number of transistors embedded on the chip doubles after every one and a half years. The number of transistors is taken on the y-axis and the years in taken on the x-axis. The diagram also shows the speed in MHz. the graph given in figure also shows the variation of speed of the chip in MHz. Figure 1. Moore s law. The graph in figure2 compares the various technologies available in ICs.
2 Figure 2.Comparison of available technologies. From the graph we can conclude that GaAs technology is better but still it is not used because of growing difficulties of GaAs crystal. CMOS looks to be a better option compared to nmos since it consumes a lesser power. BiCMOS technology is also used in places where high driving capability is required and from the graph it confirms that, BiCMOS consumes more power compared to CMOS. Levels of Integration:- i) Small Scale Integration:- (10-100) transistors => Example: Logic gates ii) Medium Scale Integration:- ( ) => Example: counters iii) Large Scale Integration:- ( ) => Example:8-bit chip iv) Very Large Scale Integration:- ( ) => Example:16 & 32 bit up v) Ultra Large Scale Integration:- ( ) => Example: Special processors, virtual reality machines, smart sensors 1.2 Basic MOS Transistors: MOS We should first understand the fact that why the name Metal Oxide Semiconductor transistor, because the structure consists of a layer of Metal (gate), a layer of oxide (Sio2) and a layer of semiconductor. Figure 3 below clearly tell why the name MOS.
3 Figure 3.cross section of a MOS structure We have two types of FETs. They are Enhancement mode and depletion mode transistor. Also we have PMOS and NMOS transistors. In Enhancement mode transistor channel is going to form after giving a proper positive gate voltage. We have NMOS and PMOS enhancement transistors. In Depletion mode transistor channel will be present by the implant. It can be removed by giving a proper negative gate voltage. We have NMOS and PMOS depletion mode transistors N-MOS enhancement mode transistor:- This transistor is normally off. This can be made ON by giving a positive gate voltage. By giving a +ve gate voltage a channel of electrons is formed between source drain. Figure 4. N-MOS enhancement mode transistor P-MOS enhancement mode transistor:- This is normally on. A Channel of Holes can be performed by giving a ve gate voltage. In P-Mos current is carried by holes and in N-Mos it s by electrons. Since the mobility is of holes less than that of electrons P-Mos is slower.
4 Figure 5. P-MOS enhancement mode transistor N-MOS depletion mode transistor:- This transistor is normally ON, even with Vgs=0. The channel will be implanted while fabricating, hence it is normally ON. To cause the channel to cease to exist, a ve voltage must be applied between gate and source. Figure 6. N-MOS depletion mode transistor NOTE: Mobility of electrons is 2.5 to 3 times faster than holes. Hence P-MOS devices will have more resistance compared to NMOS.
5 Enhancement mode Transistor action: - To establish the channel between the source and the drain a minimum voltage (Vt) must be applied between gate and source. This minimum voltage is called as Threshold Voltage. The complete working of enhancement mode transistor can be explained with the help of diagram a, b and c. a) Vgs > Vt Vds = 0 Figure 7. (a)(b)(c) Enhancement mode transistor with different Vds values Since Vgs > Vt and Vds = 0 the channel is formed but no current flows between drain and source.
6 b) Vgs > Vt Vds < Vgs - Vt This region is called the non-saturation Region or linear region where the drain current increases linearly with Vds. When Vds is increased the drain side becomes more reverse biased (hence more depletion region towards the drain end) and the channel starts to pinch. This is called as the pinch off point. c) Vgs > Vt Vds > Vgs - Vt This region is called Saturation Region where the drain current remains almost constant. As the drain voltage is increased further beyond (Vgs-Vt) the pinch off point starts to move from the drain end to the source end. Even if the Vds is increased more and more, the increased voltage gets dropped in the depletion region leading to a constant current. The typical threshold voltage for an enhancement mode transistor is given by Vt = 0.2 * Vdd Depletion mode Transistor action:- We can explain the working of depletion mode transistor in the same manner, as that of the enhancement mode transistor only difference is, channel is established due to the implant even when Vgs = 0 and the channel can be cut off by applying a ve voltage between the gate and source. Threshold voltage of depletion mode transistor is around 0.8*Vdd.
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