BASICS OF ANTENNAS Lecture Note 1
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1 BASICS OF ANTENNAS Lecture Note 1 INTRODUCTION Antennas are devices that are capable of launching RF (radio frequency) energy into space and detect it as well. How well an antenna is able to launch RF energy and how well it can detect, depends on some important parameters that will be introduced here. Many people find it hard sometimes to understand some or all of these parameters, but I have found out that explanations with examples can help. I have tried my best to choose the examples close to the concepts. This Lecture note does not contain any mathematical formulae, instead I have concentrated on only the concepts of antennas. Mathematical considerations will be dealt in the following lecture notes. So first, how do antennas radiate RF energy? To understand this, check out the picture of the leaf below. The leaf can be thought equivalent to an antenna, the ripples are the radiation & the circular nature of ripples is the radiation pattern. If the ripples were to be seen, somehow hovering from the top of the water surface, you would see concentric circles forming from the point where the stick was inserted in water and moving away from it. As ripples (radiation) travel away from this point, they die out. In antenna theory, this is equivalent to RF energy eventually fading out as it moves away from antenna. According to physics, ripples do not travel, it is the disturbance that caused the ripples that travels. This travel of disturbance is what makes the ripples. In antenna theory, this is equivalent to the radiation travelling. The Omnidirectional antenna: The word Omnidirectional means in all directions. So an omnidirectional antenna is the one that radiates equal RF energy in all directions. Of course, such an antenna does not exist! But it is very useful to understand the many complicated parameters of a real world antenna. Omnidirectional antennas used in real world are not perfect i.e. they do not radiate the same energy in all directions. An omnidirectional antenna is not a very good antenna to use in real world scenarios because it spreads out the RF energy in all directions. Mostly directional antennas which direct RF energy in the direction of interest (say in the direction where a TV receiver is location) are used. An example of such an antenna is the one shown in Figure 3. Some applications of omnidirectional antennas are in data
2 transmission base stations for secure WIFI communications. More about this is not in the scope of this lecture note and can be made available on request. Figure 3 : Omnidirectional Antenna IMPORTANT PARAMETERS OF AN ANTENNA : Frequency : The very word frequency means the number of times any event occurs. That is precisely what it means even in electromagnetic and antenna theory. The best part about our world is that any type of energy (there are lots of different types out there) can simply be divided into sine or cosine waves. Any sine or cosine wave has an amplitude (defines power), frequency (number of complete cycles/sec or Hertz (named after the scientist who discovered it)), wavelength (distance between two heights). The following figure 1 will help get these terms right. Figure 2 helps in understand low frequency and high frequency sine waves.
3 Figure 1 : Frequency, Amplitude & Wavelength of a Sine Wave Figure 2 : Low and High Frequency Sine waves Frequency Bands : Just like every country has a government, there are also governing bodies (e.g. ITU International Telecommunications Union) which are responsible for dividing all the frequencies available into what we call as frequency bands. By dividing all frequency or spectrum into bands, the governing bodies then auction these bands to communications companies to use. If this regulation was not in place, then we would receive TV signals on our phones and calls would come to our TVs! If an antenna operates in the frequency range of 400Mhz to 500Mhz then its bandwidth is 100Mhz! So if someone asks you to design an antenna, ask them which frequencies they want it to cover. You will then get the bandwidth of the antenna! Antenna Gain : Antenna gain in db is a number which defines how much the antenna amplifies the RF signal before launching it in space. For a receiving antenna, the gain defines how much the receiving antenna amplifies the detected RF energy before future processing. Good gain in the direction of interest helps in better transmission and reception of RF signals. Good gain during transmission is more important than during reception simply because the transmitted signal needs to be strong enough to travel the distance and reach the receiver. The receiver gain on the other hand can still be less and work good if the receiving antenna is designed well (designed well to detect the right signals and ignore others). I will cover more antenna design in another lecture note. For now I am working on designing a Log-Periodic antenna to receive all digital TV channels in Australia. Once it is completed, I will upload all my research and notes. Elevation & Azimuth Angle: To understand these angles, imagine you are doing some neck exercises. Every time you lifted your head to see the ceiling and every time you looked down to see the floor, you changed the elevation angle (remember elevation means height). Every time you looked to your right and then left, you changed the azimuth angle. Now replace your head with an antenna, and the up and down motion of the antenna will change the elevation angle and the right and left motion will change the azimuth angle. The figure 3 below shows the elevation and azimuth angles. In the figure below, the elevation angle is expressed as altitude (again height). Understanding the elevation and azimuth angles is very important because sometimes adjusting the antenna s angle can do the trick of receiving the best signal! If you were tweaking the TV antenna sitting on your rooftop, you would want the best reception possible. Here good reception translates to good picture quality.
4 Figure 3 : Elevation and Azimuth Angles Radiation Pattern : To understand radiation pattern, imagine you are blowing soap bubbles. We all wait for that lucky turn when we blow a big one! Try to remember the shape of the bubble just before it sets off floating in the air. That is the exact pattern of radiation coming off a directional antenna. If the antenna radiates only in one direction then it will look like the bubble we mentioned before. The radiation patterns contain Lobes as shown in figure 4 below. Since the real world antennas are not perfect, there are lobes present in other directions other than the direction of interest. The lobe in the direction of interest is called the Main Lobe. The lobes in the side are called side lobes and those at the back are called back lobes.
5 Figure 4 : Radiation Pattern Some parameters defined in radiation patterns are the gain in the main lobe, front-to-back ratio. The gain in the main lobe or forward direction is the gain in the direction of interest. The front to back ratio is the ratio of the main lobe to the back lobe. This has to be minimum unless required specifically by applications because the presence of back lobes negate the gain in the main lobe. And for directional antennas, we need good gain in the main lobe. Efficiency : Antenna efficiency quantifies how much of the RF energy fed to the antenna was radiated. A highly efficient antenna will radiate most of the RF energy that was fed to it. A less efficient antenna will not. Losses present in the antenna are responsible for this. Losses present in the antenna and how they affect radiation will be discussed during the designing of an antenna later. One of the factors affecting the efficiency of an antenna is its impedance. Impedance is nothing but the collective resistance and capacitance of any element. We know that all electrical elements incur certain loss since they will either be some amount of resistance or capacitance or both in them. Without going much into the resistance and capacitance, let s just concentrate on the general impedance. If we have a 50Ω coaxial cable we are using to feed RF energy into an antenna with impedance say 300Ω (observe that the impedance here is just resistance, no capacitive component present), there is clearly a mismatch between the resistance of the cable that is attached to the antenna. This mismatch causes loss of RF energy within the antenna which in turn reduces the efficiency. It s like having two water pipes with different diameters attached to each other. Obviously the water flow will not be constant and eventually not much water will come out of the pipe. Directivity : The directivity of an antenna is a number specifying the peak gain in the direction of interest. Beamwidth : The main beam is the region in and around the main lobe of an antenna s radiation pattern. The side lobes are unwanted RF energy that is wasted in the other directions. The half power beamwidth is the angular separation (angle between) the half power points on the main lobe. Half power points are points on the main lobe where power reduces to half of the peak power. The following figure 5 will help with the understanding. Figure 5 : Half Power Beamwidth (θ) In next lecture notes, I will cover Polarization of waves, of antennas, antenna aperture.
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