LRC Radio Networks Link Level: the Radio Channel
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1 LRC Radio Networks Link Level: the Radio Channel Roberto Verdone Slides are provided as supporting tool, they are not a textbook!
2 Outline 1. Fundamentals of Radio Propagation / 1 2. Radio Channel Characterisation 3. Link Budget 4. Large Scale phenomena 5. Small Scale phenomena a) Wideband characterisation b) Narrowband characterisation 6. The Narrowband Mobile Radio Channel 7. The Case of Wireless Sensor Networks 8. The Case of Body Area Networks 9. Link Performance with Fading 10. Gilbert-Elliot Model 11. Area Coverage Probability The scope of this lecture block is to introduce the basics of radio channel characterisation that will be useful to follow the link level analysis performed in this course.
3 1. Fundamentals of Radio Propagation / 1
4 Fundamentals of Radio Propagation / 1 transmit power d receive power T Pt radio space Pr R transmit antenna system receive antenna system gain G t efficiency η t gain G r efficiency η r
5 Fundamentals of Radio Propagation / 1 Radio! Waves
6 Fundamentals of Radio Propagation / 1 Radio! Waves Radio Communication is* the transmission, emission, reception of signs, signals, writings, images, sounds or information of whatever nature, making use of electromagnetic waves x λ E y H d z * MIN. SV. EC DIP. COM. IT. Piano Naz. di ripartiz. delle frequenze Glossario
7 Fundamentals of Radio Propagation / 1 Radio! Waves Faraday Maxwell Hertz Lodge Guglielmo Marconi: 1895 first wideband reception at Villa Griffone (Pontecchio Marconi) 1897 first ship-to-shore communications over a distance of 12 Kms 1901 first transoceanic transmission
8 Fundamentals of Radio Propagation / 1 Radio! Waves Phase speed in clear sky c = m/s = f λ Power density in free space p(d) = 0.5 E m 2 / 377 = Pt Gt η t / 4 π d 2 W/m 2 Received power is Pr = p(d) Gr η r / 4 π / λ 2 W Waves tend to interact with objects of size equal to or larger than λ Efficient antennas have size close to λ Antenna gains depend on directivity VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF f [ MHz ] 0,03 0, λ [ m ]
9 Fundamentals of Radio Propagation / 1 Radio! Waves 3 > f [ MHz ] λ [ m ] > 100 Ground Waves 3 < f [ MHz ] < < λ [ m ] < 100 Sky Waves 30 < f [ MHz ] 10 > λ [ m ] Space Waves Ground waves Sky waves Space waves Near-optical propagation VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF f [ MHz ] 0,03 0, λ [ m ]
10 Fundamentals of Radio Propagation / 1 Radio! Frequency Spectrum
11 Fundamentals of Radio Propagation / 1 Radio! Frequency Spectrum VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF f [ MHz ] 0,03 0, λ [ m ] Frequency band assignments to services are: 1) Requested by industry alliances, standardisation bodies 2) Negotiated within and recommended by ITU-R 3) Regulated on a Country basis by National Authorities 4) Released to operators / users
12 Fundamentals of Radio Propagation / 1 Radio! Frequency Spectrum ISM Bands: Licence - Exempt in Most Countries VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF f [ MHz ] 0,03 0, λ [ m ] MHz RFid MHz RFid MHz Proprietary Radios MHz Proprietary Radios, LoRa, GHz Proprietary Radios, Bluetooth, WiFi, Zigbee, GHz WiFi,
13 Fundamentals of Radio Propagation / 1 Radio! Unpredictable Channel
14 Fundamentals of Radio Propagation / 1 Radio! Unpredictable Channel d T Pt radio space Pr R transmit power receive power If radio space is uniform, isotropic, perfect dielectric, without obstacles, Pr = Pt Gt Gr / Aio Aio = ( 4 π d / λ ) 2 [Friis, 1945] Otherwise Aio replaced by Ai = c * d β * x where c is constant, x is r.v.
15 Fundamentals of Radio Propagation / 1 Radio! Unpredictable Channel Channel Filtering d Pt Pr T R BLER [log] Pr = Pt Gt Gr / Ai BLER* Receiver Power [dbm] d -β β > 2 d -2 Transmission Range Prmin SNR Receiver Sensitivity Prmin R R distance
16 Fundamentals of Radio Propagation / 1 Radio! Unpredictable Channel Channel Filtering d Pt Pr T R β = 2 β > 2 R d R
17 Fundamentals of Radio Propagation / 1 Radio! Unpredictable Channel Channel Loss Fluctuations d T Pt Pr R Receiver Power outage events Prmin time
18 Fundamentals of Radio Propagation / 1 Radio! Unpredictable Channel Channel Loss Fluctuations d T Pt Pr R R R d
19 Fundamentals of Radio Propagation / 1 Radio! Unpredictable Channel Device Location d T R R distance R d pdf 2d/R 2 time R distance
20 Fundamentals of Radio Propagation / 1 Radio! Unpredictable Channel d T Pt radio space Pr R Pr = k d -β ξ Reliability requires: Countermeasures to user mobility Countermeasures to channel fluctuations
21 2. Radio Channel Characterisation Prof. Roberto Verdone
22 Radio Channel Characterisation s t (t) s r (t) Real World Pt Fp(f) Pr Analysis measurements or computation Comprehension Synthesis Model deterministic or statistical We do not need models that describe carefully the real world! We need models that are useful for the sake of link performance analysis
23 Radio Channel Characterisation s t (t) s r (t) Pt Pr Fp(f) Assumptions on the radio channel: Linear Multiple sources generate received signal given by sum Far Field Planar waves at the receiver antenna Time-Variant Fp(f) changes with time! Fp(f, t) Quasi-Static Fp(f, t) varies slowly with respect to channel propagation delays (WSSUS Wide Sense Stationary Uncorrelated Scattering)
24 Radio Channel Characterisation 1. Narrowband: Carrier transmitted P r = P t F p (f, t) 2 (LTV) Channel Impulse Response (CIR): F h(t, τ) F p (f, t) 2. Wideband: Impulse transmitted Power Delay Profile (PDP): P h (τ) = Int t [ h(t, τ) 2 ] (WSSUS) P r = Int [ P h (τ) ] PDP [W/s] Delay (τ)
25 Radio Channel Characterisation On Wide Sense Stationarity CIR t 1 t 2 t 3 t 4 Tcoh (s) Delay (τ) Time (t)
26 Radio Channel Characterisation Time (t) On Wide Sense Stationarity CIR Delay (τ) t 1 t 2 t 3 t 4 Tcoh (s)
27 Radio Channel Characterisation The main phenomena characterising the mobile channel can be categorised as: Large Scale Small Scale if observed only changing significantly the Tx-Rx relation if observed with small changes of the Tx-Rx relation Channel characterisation can be Narrowband Single carrier is transmitted Wideband Short pulse is transmitted We will focus mainly on link budget related issues
28 3. Link Budget Prof. Roberto Verdone
29 Link Budget Tx d >> λ Rx BLER [log] source transmitter transmitting antenna system receiving antenna system receiver sink SNR [db] Pt TC TAS RAS RC Pr connector At antenna Gt radio space Ai antenna Gr connector Ar Free Space Loss: Aio = ( 4 π d / λ ) 2 λ = c / f c = m/s Pr = Pt [ Gt Gr / At Ar Aio]
30 Link Budget Tx d >> λ Rx BLER [log] source transmitter transmitting antenna system receiving antenna system receiver sink SNR [db] Pt TC TAS RAS RC Pr connector At antenna Gt radio space Ai antenna Gr connector Ar Non Free Space Loss: Aim = k d β ξ is a r.v. Pr = Pt [ Gt Gr / At Ar Aim ] / ξ
31 Link Budget Tx d >> λ Rx BLER [log] source transmitter transmitting antenna system receiving antenna system receiver sink SNR [db] Pt TC TAS RAS RC Pr connector At antenna Gt radio space Ai antenna Gr connector Ar Introduction of margins: M = M 1. M 2 Prob[ ξ > M ] = Po Pr = Pt [ Gt Gr / At Ar Aim ] / M
32 Link Budget: example Pt 20 dbm 20 Pt [dbm] Pr At - 2 db Gt + 4 db Aim - 80 db M (fading) - 20 db M (other impairments) - 4 db Gr + 0 db Ar - 1 db M (interference) - 2 db Pr - 85 dbm - 85
33 4. Large Scale Phenomena Prof. Roberto Verdone
34 Large Scale: Shadowing Tx Humans, vehicles, hills, trees, Rx Narrowband characterisation d = 1 km x
35 Large Scale Tx Humans, vehicles, hills, trees, Rx Shadowing effect: isotropic attenuation is the product of several terms: Aim = A1 A2 An Aim [db] = A1 [db] + A2 [db] + + An [db] If n is large, and central limit theorem assumptions hold, then Aim [db] is Gaussian distributed. Standard deviation from 4 to 12 depending on environment
36 Large Scale Shadowing is usually log-normally distributed, for both mobile/stationary applications Autocorrelation function is R(d) = R 0 exp [ - d/d 0 ] [Gudmunson s Model] d 0 = metres Large scale fluctuations Received power [dbm] Link Reciprocal High frequency coherence Low spatial coherence distance
37 5. Small Scale Phenomena Prof. Roberto Verdone
38 Small Scale: Fading Tx Rx Narrowband characterisation Wideband characterisation Transmitted Power time Received Power delay
39 Small Scale: Wideband Characterisation Power Delay Profile: P h (τ) = Int [ h(t, τ) 2 ] Mean Delay: T m = Int [ τ P h (τ) ] / P r Root Mean Square Delay Spread: PDP σ τ = [(( Int τ 2 P h (τ) ) / P r ) T m 2 ] delay
40 Small Scale: Wideband Characterisation To be compared to symbol time.
41 Small Scale: Wideband Characterisation Tx Rx τ σ τ = τ / 2 Fp(f, t) 2 fc notch frequency Math. derivation 1 / τ
42 Small Scale: Wideband Characterisation Tx Rx t τ σ τ = τ / 2 Fp(f, t) 2 fc Pr t time frequency
43 Small Scale: Wideband Characterisation Tx Rx τ σ τ = τ / 2 Fp(f, t) 2 fc Bc frequency 1 / τ
44 Small Scale: Wideband Characterisation Tx Rx τ σ τ = τ / 2 BLER [log], one path only BLER [log], two paths Bc 1 / τ Error Floor SNR [db] Bc << 1 / τ SNR [db]
45 Small Scale: Wideband Characterisation Tx Rx τ σ τ = τ / 2 BLER [log], one path only BLER [log], two paths Bc 1 / τ Error Floor SNR [db] Bc << 1 / τ SNR [db] Bc > 1 / τ (with rake receiver)
46 Small Scale: Wideband Characterisation Rs τ << 1 Signal strength (random) attenuation Rs τ ~ 1 or larger signal distortion τ represents delay spread of the channel impulse response
47 Small Scale: Narrowband (Mobile) Characterisation Tx Rx Speed v
48 Small Scale: Narrowband (Mobile) Characterisation m Large Scale fluctuations Received power [dbm] Small Scale fluctuations Rayleigh/Rice/ distributed envelope wavelengths (λ / 2 under typical urban conditions) distance
49 Small Scale: Narrowband (Mobile) Characterisation time = distance / speed s Pedestrian User Large Scale fluctuations Received power [dbm] s Small Scale fluctuations Speed: 1 m/s GSM frequency band time
50 Small Scale: Narrowband (Mobile) Characterisation time = distance / speed 1 10 s Vehicular User (Urban) Large Scale fluctuations Received power [dbm] s Small Scale fluctuations Speed: 10 m/s GSM frequency band time
51 Small Scale: Narrowband (Mobile) Characterisation time = distance / speed s High Speed (e.g. trains) Large Scale fluctuations Received power [dbm] s Small Scale fluctuations Speed: 80m/s LTE frequency band (800 MHz or 2600 MHz) time
52 Small Scale: Narrowband (Mobile) Characterisation Received power [dbm] Small Scale fluctuations Non Link Reciprocal (for long ranges) Low frequency coherence Low spatial coherence time
53 Small Scale: Doppler Effect Spectrum Transmitted Carrier fo Frequency Tx Rx Speed v Spectrum fo fo + Δf Doppler shift Frequency Received Carrier Δf is proportional to v
54 Small Scale: Doppler Spectrum Spectrum Transmitted Carrier fo Frequency Tx Rx Speed v Spectrum fo - Δf fo fo + Δf Frequency Received Carrier Δf is proportional to v/λ
55 Small Scale: Doppler Spectrum Spectrum fo - Δf fo fo + Δf Frequency BLER [log], no Doppler BLER [log], with Doppler Bc v / λ Bc >> v / λ Error Floor SNR [db] SNR [db]
56 Small Scale: Narrowband (Stationary) Characterisation Do not use previous model for v tending to zero; the speed of obstacles has to be considered The Doppler spectrum might change (typically bell-shaped) The fluctuation rate depends on speed of scatterers The statistics of channel fluctuations might change
57 Small Scale: Narrowband Characterisation Channel fluctuations are fast or slow depending on the user speed. In any case, one has to define what Fast or Slow means with respect to the figures considered e.g. The quality of human oriented communications: it is known that human perception is not sensitive to fluctuations faster than a few Hertz, Hence, link quality has to be averaged over fast fluctuations where fast means with a frequency larger than a few Hertz (for instance, fading for pedestrian or vehicular speeds in the GSM frequency band)
58 Radio Channel Characterisation in a nutshell The main phenomena characterising the mobile channel can be categorised as: Large Scale Small Scale shadowing due to obstruction along the entire path fading due to multipath caused by reflections, diffractions, over objects in the vicinity of receiver (scatterers) Channel characterisation can be Narrowband Single carrier is transmitted: link budget is the issue flat or time selective fading (small scale) shadowing (large scale) Wideband Short pulse is transmitted: multipath delay is the issue frequency selective fading (small scale) We focus mainly on link budget related issues (i.e. narrowband characterisation)
59 Radio Channel Characterisation in a nutshell Frequency bands from 400 MHz to 4 GHz Fading Shadowing Coherence Time T coh ms 1 10 s Coherence Band B coh MHz MHz Coherence Space S coh m m
60 Inquiry Based Session Does 2G (Bc = 200 KHz, fc = 1800 MHz) suffer from frequency selective fading? Does WiFi (Bc = 22 MHz, fc = 2.4 GHz) suffer from frequency selective fading? Does 2G (Bc = 200 KHz, fc = 1800 MHz) suffer from time selective fading?
61 6. The Narrowband Mobile Radio Channel
62 The Narrowband Mobile Radio Channel Received power [dbm] Prm(d) x distance Pr(x) = Prm(d) m 2 (x) r 2 (x) = Pra(x) r 2 (x) Pr(x) short term average power (over few carrier cycles) Pra(x) = Prm(d) m 2 (x) long term average power (over fading: few wavelenghts) Prm(d) median power (distance dependent component)
63 The Narrowband Mobile Radio Channel Pr(x) = Prm(d) m 2 (x) r 2 (x) Model Assumptions Shadowing: m 2 (x) is assumed to be log-normal distributed: Pra(x) [dbm] = Prm(d) [dbm] + s(x) [db] s(x) is Gaussian, zero mean, std dev. σ Fading: r(x) is assumed to be Rayleigh distributed (worst case), i.e. f(x) = r 2 (x) is negative exponentially distributed: pdf(f) = [1 / X] exp (- f / X) u(f) X = E[r(x) 2 ] =1 u(f) step function Median Power: Prm(d) = k d -β
64 7. The Case of Wireless Sensor Networks
65 The Case of Wireless Sensor Networks Collection of wireless sensor nodes deployed on an area for monitoring or communication purposes. Distance range reduced: 1 50 m Distinguishing small/large scale phenomena is often impossible Random channel fluctuations usually assumed to be Gaussian (in db)
66 8. The Case of Body Area Networks Prof. Roberto Verdone
67 The Case of Body Area Networks Distances are related to body size! ~10-50 cm Small and large scale fading could be extracted, due to the body movement and environment effect. Channel Gain [db] Anechoic Chamber - Tx Heart - Top Loded Monopole - Still Rx Thigh, P(t) Rx Thigh, G0*S(t) Rx Right Hand, P(t) Rx Right hand, G0*S(t) Rx Lef t Hand, P(t) Rx Left Hand, G0*S(t) Rx Lef t Ear, P(t) Rx Left Ear, G0*S(t) Channel Gain [db] Indoor - Tx Hip - Top Loaded Monopole - Walking Rx Thigh, P(t) Rx Thigh, G0*S(t) Rx Right Hand, P(t) Rx Right Hand, G0*S(t) Rx Lef t Hand, P(t) Rx Left hand, G0*S(t) Rx Lef t Ear, P(t) Rx Left Ear, G0*S(t) Time [s] Time [s]
68 Exercise LRC#1 Assume that the median received power at a distance of one meter is -10 dbm. The propagation exponent is equal to 4. Compute the probability that the long term average power is less than -93 dbm at a distance of 100 m, with standard deviation of shadowing equal to 6. Exercise LRC#2 Assume that the long term average power in a link is equal to -67 dbm. Under Rayleigh fading conditions, what is the probability of having short term average power less than -80 dbm?
69 9. Link Performance with Fading Prof. Roberto Verdone
70 Link Performance with Fading Human oriented applications: BLERa = Long term average BLER BLERa = E [BLER(SNR)] = g(snra) Computer oriented applications: P out = Link Level Outage Probability P out = Prob [ BLER > BLER* ] = Prob [ SNR < SNR* ] = 1 exp(-snr*/snra)
71 10. Gilbert-Elliot Model Prof. Roberto Verdone
72 Gilbert-Elliot Model 1 - q P good q Good Bad p P bad 1 - p BLERa = P bad * BLER bad + P good * BLER good Good state: BLER good = 0 P good = q / (p + q)! BLERa = P bad Bad state: BLER bad = 1 P bad = p / (p + q) P bad is equivalent to P out
73 Exercise LRC#3 Compute parameters p and q for the Gilbert-Elliot model, assuming the average BLER is 0.01.
74 11. Area Coverage Probability Prof. Roberto Verdone
75 Area Coverage Probability R d pdf(d) 2d/R 2 R d P cova = E d [P cov (d)] = Int_0^R [ P cov (d) 2d / R 2 ] P cov (d) = Prob [ BLERa(d) < BLERa* ] = Prob [ SNRa(d) > SNRa* ] = Prob [ Pra(d) > Pra* ] Pra(d) [dbm] = Prm(d) [dbm] + s P cov (d) = Prob [ s > (Pra* - Prm(d) [db]) ] = 0.5 erfc[(pra* - Prm(d) [db]) / σ 2 ] Math. derivation! P cov (R) = f (R, a) a = M sh [db] / σ M sh = Prm(R) / Pra*
76 Area Coverage Probability: compl. error function (erfc) erfc(x) = 2 π e t 2 dt x x E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E-04
77 Area Coverage Probability: compl. error function (erfc) x erfc(x) = 2 π e t 2 dt x E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E-17
78 Area Coverage Probability a = M sh [db] / σ 1 Coverage probability at cell border P cov a
79 Area Coverage Probability a = M sh [db] / σ 1 Average coverage probability P cova a β = 2 β = 3 β = 4
80 Area Coverage Probability 1 β = 3, k = 0.01, P * ra = 101 dbm σ = 6 σ = 9 σ = 12 Average coverage probability Cell radius [km]
81 Area Coverage Probability 1 β = 4, k = 0.01, P * ra = 101 dbm σ = 6 σ = 9 σ = 12 Average coverage probability Cell radius [km]
82 Exercise LRC#4 Determine the maximum radius of a GSM cell (frequency band: 1800 MHz) assuming standard deviation of shadowing equal to 6, isotropic loss at 1 m set as 40 db and propagation exponent equal to 3. Transmitted power is 10 W, transmit and receive antenna gains are 10 db and 0 db respectively. Neglect losses due to antenna connections. The receiver sensitivity is -101 dbm. The requirement on average coverage probability is 90%. Exercise LRC#5 For the same set of parameters as above, draw a diagram showing the maximum cell radius as a function of the propagation exponent, from 3 to 4.
83 12. Fundamentals of Radio Propagation / 2
84 Fundamentals of Radio Propagation / 2 Radio! Frequency Spectrum VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF f [ MHz ] 0,03 0, λ [ m ] Spectrum usage f [ MHz ] More than 90% is actually unutilised!
85 Fundamentals of Radio Propagation / 2 Radio! Frequency Spectrum Ultra Wide Band Spectrum usage [Ross, 60s] f [MHz] Cognitive Radio Spectrum usage [Mitola, 1991] f [MHz]
86 Waves Prof. Roberto Verdone
87 Radio Networks Link Level: the Radio Channel The End Portonuovo
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