INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING
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1 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING Basic Technology By the Stoff of Integraied Circuit Engineering Corporation, Phoenix, Arizona GLEN R. MADLAND ROBERT L. PRITCHARD HOWARD K. DICKEN FRANK H. BOWER ROBERT D. RICHARDSON DAVID B. KRET Fourth Edition Boston Technical Publishers, Inc. Central Square, Bax 111, Cambridge, Massachusetts U.S.A in
2 CONTENTS Section FOREWORD iii?. THE ECONOMIC IMPACT OF INTEGRATED CIRCUITS 1.1 INTEGRATED CIRCUITS VS DISCRETE COMPONENT CIRCUITS THE IMPACT OF INTEGRATED CIRCUITS Economic Drives Control of Circuit Design The User-Supplier Interface THE ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT DESIGNER AND INTEGRATED CIRCUIT PROCESSING CHANGING FROM CONVENTIONAL COMPONENTS TO INTEGRATED CIRCUITS PRESENT STATUS OF INTEGRATED CIRCUITS THE ECONOMICS OF MICROELECTRONICS The Pricing Policies of the Semiconductor Industry The Cost of Producing Integrated Circuits 7 l.a DEFINITION OF TERMS 10 l.b LIST OF SYMBOLS 12 l.c TABLE OF CONSTANTS THE BASIC MATERIALS AND PROCESSES OF MICROCIRCUITS 2.1 SILICON Electrical Properties of Silicon Material Purification Crystal Structure Preparing Single Crystals WATER PREPARATION Slicing Lapping and Polishing PN JUNCTIONS Alloy Junctions Diffused Junctions Epitaxially Grown Junctions TRANSISTORS OTHER ACTIVE DEVICES Field Effect Transistors (FET) Zener Diodes Four Layer Devices Thin Film Techniques DIFFUSION Diffusion Theory Distribution Profiles Dopants 26
3 Multiple Diffusions Diffusion Systems EPITAXY Epitaxial Growth Epitaxial Systems SILICON DIOXIDE CONDUCTORS Gold Aluminum Kovar THE PACKAGING MATERIALS Ceramic Glass Epoxy PHOTOLITHOGRAPHY 3.1 MASK LAYOUT Mask Design Art Work Layout Example PHOTO REDUCTION LIMITATIONS Reduction Theory Optimum Aperture Resolution Limits Alignment Limits FABRICATION OF PHOTO MASKS Reduction Techniques Step-and-Repeat Techniques Multi-Lens Techniques Pinhole Techniques PHOTO MASKS Mask Copies Chrome Masks Metal Masks SILICON WAFER PROCESSING 4.1 LOCALIZED DIFFUSION CONTROL MAJOR PROCESS VARIATIONS ISOLATION METHODS Diffused Collector Isolation (or Triple Diffusion Process) All Diffused Isolation Diffused Isolation in Epitaxial Layer Dielectric Isolation Resistive Isolation Beam-Lead Isolation THE NPN SILICON PROCESS Starting Material Oxidation Buried Layer Epitaxial Layer Cleaning Re-Oxidation Isolation Diffusion Base Diffusion Emitter Diffusion Pre-Ohmic Etch Metalization Backside Preparation DIELECTRIC ISOLATION SILICON WAFER PROCESSING PROBLEMS vi
4 4.7 CLEANLINESS AND CONTAMINATION CONTROL De-Ionized Water PROCESS GASES DEGREASING DUST AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL PROCESS CONTROL 5.1 DIFFUSION PROCESS CONTROL Visual Inspection Probing JUNCTION CHARACTERISTICS Electrical Characteristics of Junctions Measurement of Junction Depth Diode Recovery Time Junction Profiles TEST PATTERN CONTROL RESISTIVITY PROBING PERFORMANCE OF DEVICES PROCESS CONTROL CHARTS YIELD DATA ASSEMBLY PROCESS CONTROL Device Probing Circuit Probing Final Test MECHANICS OF PROBING Probing Joints Probing Techniques SUMMARY THIN FILM PROCESSES 6.1 TYPES OF THIN FILM CIRCUITS Substrates Thin Films Thick Films CHARACTERISTICS OF THIN FILM COMPONENTS Inductance Thin Film Contact Parasitics Thin Film Contact Resistance Thin Film Geometries PATTERNING THIN FILMS Photolithography Metal Masks Silk Screen THIN FILM RESISTORS Sheet Resistance Temperature Coefficient of Resistance Thin Film Versus Diffused Resistor Parasitics Frequency Response Tolerance FILM RESISTOR MATERIALS Nichrome Cermets Tantalum THIN FILM CAPACITORS Diffused Capacitors MOS Capacitors Compatible Capacitors FABRICATION PROCEDURES COMPLETE THIN FILM CIRCUITS THIN FILM FABRICATION SYSTEMS 98 vii
5 6.9.1 Vacuum Deposition Cathode Sputtering Vapor Plating SUMMARY INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ASSEMBLY 7.1 BASIC ASSEMBLY TECHNIQUES CIRCUIT PROBING SCRIBING PACKAGES TO Fiat Packages Special Packages Epoxy Packages DIE BONDING Metal Packages Glass Packages WIRE BONDING Wire Properties Thermal Compression Wedge Bonding Ball Bonding Stitch Bonding Ultrasonic Bonding ENCAPSULATION TESTING SILICON MONOLITHIC ASSEMBLY MULTI-CHIP ASSEMBLY Layout Ceramic Preparation Component Testing Assembly and Testing THIN FILM ASSEMBLY 7.12 ASSEMBLY CONSIDERATIONS NEW TECHNIQUES Beam Leads Ultrasonic Flip Chip Low Cost Packaging ASSEMBLY FACILITIES General Considerations Laboratory Facilities Major Capitol Equipment for Assembly TESTING COMPLETED INTEGRATED CIRCUITS 8.1 THE GOALS OF INTEGRATED CIRCUIT TESTING The Black Box Concept New Testing Concepts TESTING STANDARDS Reference Documents Test Conditions TEST SET-UP 1^4 8.4 PERFORMANCE TESTS Component Parameters Input Measurements Loading Speed of Operation Noise Immunity TEMPERATURE EFFECTS ON PERFORMANCE Component Parameters and Temperature Variations Integrated Circuit Characteristics as a Function of Temperature viii
6 8.5.3 Selection of Integrated Circuits PHYSICAL TESTS TESTING SYSTEMS TEST SYSTEM ACCESSORIES Integrated Circuit Holders Environmental Test Jigs COMMON TESTING ERRORS BASIC INTEGRATED DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 9.1 SILICON MONOLITHIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS DIFFUSED RESISTORS INTEGRATED CAPACITORS Junction Type Capacitors Oxide Type Capacitors INTEGRATED TRANSISTORS Diffused Transistor Characteristics Lateral PNP Transistors INTEGRATED DIODES INTEGRATED INDUCTORS COMPATIBLE INTEGRATED CIRCUIT CONSTRUCTION Compatible Resistor Techniques ; Compatible Capacitors Compatible Transistors MULTI-CHIP DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS THIN FILM CIRCUIT DESIGN Resistors Capacitors Transistors COST CONSIDERATIONS Area Considerations Tolerance Considerations AVAILABLE CIRCUIT ELEMENTS Resistors Capacitors Transistors THE MATHEMATICS OF INTEGRATED CIRCUIT DESIGN 10.1 THEORY Wave Equations Band Gap Carrier Concentration MATERIAL PROPERTIES Mobility Lifetime and Diffusion Length Resistivity Dielectrics PN JUNCTION THEORY Junctions at Equilibrium Depletion Layer Junction Capacitance Diode Equation Reverse Current Forward Voltage Breakdown Voltage TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS Gain and Transconductance Frequency Calculations PNPN Action MONOLITHIC DIODE DESIGN RESISTOR DESIGN 188 ix
7 CAPACITOR DESIGN The PN Junction Capacitor Silicon Dioxide Capacitor Design SUMMARY DIGITAL INTEGRATED CIRCUITS 11.1 BASIC LOGIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES Binary Numbers Numerical Codes Binary Arithmetic LOGIC ELEMENTS Application of Basic Elements Positive-Negative Logic Systems NAND-NOR Functions Memory Elements (Flip-flops) 11.3 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA SIMPLE LOGIC CIRCUITS 11.5 INTEGRATED LOGIC CIRCUITS Direct Coupled Transistor Logic (DCTL) Resistor Transistor Logic (RTL) Resistor Capacitor Transistor Logic (RCTL) Diode Transistor Logic (DTL) Transistor Transistor Logic (TTL) Current Mode Logic Complementary Transistor Logic (CTL) Logic Circuit Variations FLIP-FLOP CIRCUITS Binary Element JK Flip-Flop CIRCUIT PERFORMANCE Shift Registers Binary Counters Propagation Delays Noise Immunity COMPARISON OF CIRCUIT SYSTEMS NEW LOGIC CIRCUIT DESIGN LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS 12.1 BASIC LINEARY CONSIDERATIONS Systems Considerations Minimize Bias Current Shielding Offered by Package LINEAR INTEGRATED DESIGN TECHNIQUES Bias Point Stabilization Direct Coupling Differential Input Capacitors and Capacitance Multipliers Frequency Response CLASSES OF LINEAR CIRCUITS Differential Amplifiers Audio Amplifiers Video Amplifiers Band Pass Amplifier Miscellaneous Linear Circuits SPECIAL CIRCUIT CONFIGURATIONS Darlington Amplifier RF Grounded Collector Circuits Pulsed Power Supplies Totem Pole Circuit Designs Eliminating Transformers x
8 12.5 COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE INTEGRATED CIRCUITS Video Amplifiers Audio Amplifiers Differential and Operational Amplifiers Servo Amplifiers IMPLEMENTING INTEGRATED CIRCUIT SYSTEMS 13.1 WHETHER TO DESIGN WITH INTEGRATED CIRCUITS Percent of Integrated Circuits in Systems Timing the Change to Integrated Circuit Design SYSTEM DESIGN USING INTEGRATED CIRCUITS SELECTION OF INTEGRATED CIRCUIT PACKAGE ASSEMBLY OF INTEGRATED CIRCUIT SYSTEMS Printed Circuit Board Layout Printed Circuit Boards Mounting Integrated Circuit Packages Connectors TOTAL SYSTEM COST Purchase Price of Materials and Assembly Servicing Cost of Completed Equipment Out-of-Service Cost 266 ' Design and Development Costs Size and Weight POWER SUPPLIES THERMAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS Thermal Characteristics of Microcircuit Devices Heat Transfer within the Chip Thermal Resistance in the Die Bond Thermal Characteristics of the Case Total Integrated Circuit Thermal Resistance Values System Thermal Considerations MECHANICAL DESIGN NOISE TESTING AND REPAIRING INTEGRATED CIRCUIT SYSTEMS TOLERANCES 14.1 DIFFERENTIAL PROBABILITY AND NORMAL DISTRIBUTION MATERIALS MASKING TOLERANCE RESISTORS CAPACITORS TRANSISTORS DIODES TEMPERATURE DESIGN TIME AND TOLERANCE SUMMARY OF TOLERANCE PROBLEMS COMBINATION OF ERRORS PHOTOMASK DESIGN AND LAYOUT 15.1 MONOLITHIC ISOLATION TECHNIQUES Diffused Isolation Dielectric Isolation Other Junctions COMPONENT GEOMETRIES RESISTORS Ohms per Square End Effects 294 xi
9 Thin Film Resistors CAPACITORS TRANSISTORS DESIGN AND LAYOUT STEPS Pin Connections Crossovers Isolation Regions Substrate Contacts Layout Required Masks MASTER SLICE CONCEPT THERMAL CONSIDERATIONS Thermal Matching High Current SPECIFICATIONS FOR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS 16.1 TESTING Test Conditions Purpose of Testing Testing and Reliability Integrated Circuits vs Discrete Semiconductor Devices TYPES OF SPECIFICATIONS MAXIMUM RATINGS Power Limitations Voltage Limitations Current Limitations FUNCTIONAL SPECIFICATIONS QUALITY ASSURANCE SPECIFICATIONS Surface and Reliability Reverse and Leakage Current Noise Figure LIFE TESTS Failure Defined Life Test Monitoring MECHANICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL SPECIFICATIONS Dimension Mechanical Tests HERMETIC SEAL TESTING STANDARDIZATION GENERAL RELIABILITY CONSIDERATION YIELD VS RELIABILITY THE RELIABILITY PROBLEM Price vs Yield Proof of Reliability Quality Control in Peripheral Industries Improved Yield, Higher Reliability and Lower Prices The Psychology of Reliability THE PLANAR PROCESS PROCESS YIELD RAW MATERIAL PREPARATION Material Purification Crystal Structure Preparing Single Crystals WAFER PREPARATION EPITAXY Defects in Epitaxial Layers Measurement of Epi Layers DIFFUSION Contamination xii
10 Extraneous Doping Sources Diffusion Spikes PHOTO-LITHOGRAPHY Handling Resolution Masks Pinholes Polymerization Etching Photoresist Adherence Swelling, Stripping or Tearing Clean-up METALIZATION Tearing Metalization Adherence Peeling and Scratching Chemical Reaction DICING Scribing Breaking MOUNTING INTERCONNECTION Thermocompression Bonds BURN-IN Loose Wires SUMMARY RELIABILITY SPECIFICATIONS 18.1 THE PROMISE OF INTEGRATED CIRCUIT RELIABILITY THE LANGUAGE OF RELIABILITY PERFORMANCE AND FAILURE DEFINITIONS THE TIME ELEMENT OF RELIABILITY Life Failure Rate Mean-Time-Between-Failures and Mean-Cycles-Between-Failures MATHEMATICS OF RELIABILITY CONFIDENCE LEVEL RELIABILITY ASSURANCE METHODS Burn-In Life Tests FAILURE ACCELERATION (STEP-STRESS) Temperature Stress Mechanical Stress Combinations of Accelerating Factors PRODUCTION RELIABILITY ASSURANCE AND SPECIFICATIONS Quality Assurance and Reliability Lot Acceptance Product Qualification Line Qualification Concept RELIABILITY RESULTS Compatibility Interconnections Protection of Surfaces and Delicate Parts Handling Problems Low Power Component Misapplication COMPLEXITY VS RELIABILITY MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR CONCLUSIONS 360 xiii
11 19. FAILURE ANALYSIS 19.1 PHYSICS OF FAILURE SEMICONDUCTOR STRUCTURAL FAILURES Structural Defects Local Stress Neutron Radiation Damage Thermal Shock SEMICONDUCTOR SURFACE FAILURE CHEMICALLY CAUSED FAILURES MECHANICAL CAUSES OF FAILURE Pulling Apart Embrittlement Scratched Metalization Thin Metalization ANALYSIS PROCEDURE NEWLY DEVELOPED TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES Thermal Profile or Infra-Red Scanning Electron Beam or Micro-Scan System OBSERVED RELIABILITY TEST RESULTS EXAMPLES OF FAILURES FUTURE CAPABILITIES THE CHOICE BETWEEN INTEGRATED CIRCUITS AND CONVENTIONAL COMPONENT ASSEMBLIES DESIGN OF INTEGRATED CIRCUITS TESTING AND SPECIFYING INTEGRATED CIRCUITS THE 'MAKE OR BUY' DECISION THE ASSEMBLY OF INTEGRATED CIRCUITS TOTAL SYSTEMS RELIABILITY THE COMPLETED INTEGRATED CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT IN THE ELECTRONIC MARKET PLACE PRESENT-DAY INTEGRATED CIRCUIT PERFORMANCE FUTURE CAPABILITY OF INTEGRATED CIRCUIT TECHNOLOGY Frequency Response and Speed Frequency Selection High Voltage High Power PRESENT TECHNOLOGY INDICATORS CONCLUSIONS 386 xiv
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