CHAPTER 2. Wireless Communication Networks and Systems 1 st edition Cory Beard, William Stallings 2016 Pearson Higher Education, Inc.

Transcription

1 CHAPTER 2 These slides are made available to faculty in PowerPoint form. Slides can be freely added, modified, and deleted to suit student needs. They represent substantial work on the part of the authors; therefore, we request the following. If these slides are used in a class setting or posted on an internal or external www site, please mention the source textbook and note our copyright of this material. All material copyright 2016 Cory Beard and William Stallings, All Rights Reserved Wireless Communication Networks and Systems 1 st edition Cory Beard, William Stallings 2016 Pearson Higher Education, Inc. Protocols and the TCP/IP Suite 4-1

2 TCP/IP LAYERS Physical layer Network access layer Internet layer Host-to-host, or transport layer Application layer Protocols and the TCP/IP Suite 4-2

3 4.2 PROTOCOL DATA UNITS (PDUS) IN THE TCP/IP ARCHITECTURE Protocols and the TCP/IP Suite 4-3

4 TCP/IP PHYSICAL LAYER Covers the physical interface between a data transmission device and a transmission medium or network Physical layer specifies: Characteristics of the transmission medium The nature of the signals The data rate Other related matters Protocols and the TCP/IP Suite 4-4

5 TCP/IP NETWORK ACCESS LAYER Concerned with the exchange of data between an end system and the network to which it's attached Software used depends on type of network Circuit switching Packet switching (e.g., X.25) LANs (e.g., Ethernet) Others Protocols and the TCP/IP Suite 4-5

6 T:TCP/IP INTERNET LAYER Uses internet protocol (IP) Provides routing functions to allow data to traverse multiple interconnected networks Implemented in end systems and routers Protocols and the TCP/IP Suite 4-6

7 TCP/IP HOST-TO-HOST, OR TRANSPORT LAYER Commonly uses transmission control protocol (tcp) Provides reliability during data exchange Completeness Order Protocols and the TCP/IP Suite 4-7

8 TCP/IP APPLICATION LAYER Logic supports user applications Uses separate modules that are peculiar to each different type of application Protocols and the TCP/IP Suite 4-8

9 COMMON TCP/IP APPLICATIONS Simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP) Provides a basic electronic mail facility File Transfer Protocol (FTP) Allows files to be sent from one system to another Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) Transfers information for the World Wide Web Protocols and the TCP/IP Suite 4-9

10 LAYERS OF THE OSI MODEL Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data link Physical Protocols and the TCP/IP Suite 4-10

11 4.3 THE OSI LAYERS Protocols and the TCP/IP Suite 4-11

12 TCP/IP ARCHITECTURE DOMINANCE TCP/IP protocols matured quicker than similar OSI protocols When the need for interoperability across networks was recognized, only TCP/IP was available and ready to go OSI model is unnecessarily complex Accomplishes in seven layers what TCP/IP does with fewer layers Protocols and the TCP/IP Suite 4-12

13 4.4 A COMPARISON OF THE OSI AND TCP/IP PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURES Protocols and the TCP/IP Suite 4-13

14 4.5 CONFIGURATION FOR TCP/IP EXAMPLE Protocols and the TCP/IP Suite 4-14

15 4.6 OPERATION OF TCP/IP: ACTION AT SENDER Protocols and the TCP/IP Suite 4-15

16 4.7 OPERATION OF TCP/IP: ACTION AT ROUTER Protocols and the TCP/IP Suite 4-16

17 4.8 OPERATION OF TCP/IP: ACTION AT RECEIVER Protocols and the TCP/IP Suite 4-17

18 ELEMENTS OF STANDARDIZATION WITHIN OSI FRAMEWORK Protocol Specification Format of protocol data units (PDUs) exchanged Semantics of all fields Allowable sequence of PDUs Service Definition Functional description that defines what services are provided, but not how the services are to be provided Addressing Entities are referenced by means of a service access point (SAP) Protocols and the TCP/IP Suite 4-18

19 INTERNETWORKING TERMS Communication network facility that provides a data transfer service among devices attached to the network Internet collection of communication networks, interconnected by bridges/routers Intranet internet used by an organization for internal purposes Provides key Internet applications Can exist as an isolated, self-contained internet Protocols and the TCP/IP Suite 4-19

20 INTERNETWORKING TERMS End System (ES) device used to support end-user applications or services Intermediate System (IS) device used to connect two networks Bridge an IS used to connect two LANs that use similar LAN protocols Router - an IS used to connect two networks that may or may not be similar Protocols and the TCP/IP Suite 4-20

21 FUNCTIONS OF A ROUTER Provide a link between networks Provide for the routing and delivery of data between processes on end systems attached to different networks Provide these functions in such a way as not to require modifications of the networking architecture of any of the attached subnetworks Protocols and the TCP/IP Suite 4-21

22 NETWORK DIFFERENCES ROUTERS MUST ACCOMMODATE Addressing schemes Different schemes for assigning addresses Maximum packet sizes Different maximum packet sizes requires segmentation Interfaces Differing hardware and software interfaces Reliability Network may provide unreliable service Protocols and the TCP/IP Suite 4-22

23 AMPLITUDE-SHIFT KEYING One binary digit represented by presence of carrier, at constant amplitude Other binary digit represented by absence of carrier ( ) s t Acos 2p f t c 0 binary 1 binary 0 where the carrier signal is Acos(2πf c t) Overview of Wireless 5-23

24 AMPLITUDE-SHIFT KEYING Susceptible to sudden gain changes Inefficient modulation technique Used to transmit digital data over optical fiber Overview of Wireless 5-24

25 BINARY FREQUENCY-SHIFT KEYING (BFSK) Two binary digits represented by two different frequencies near the carrier frequency ( ) ( ) s t Acos 2p f t 1 Acos 2p f 2 t binary 1 binary 0 where f 1 and f 2 are offset from carrier frequency f c by equal but opposite amounts f d Overview of Wireless 5-25

26 BINARY FREQUENCY-SHIFT KEYING (BFSK) Less susceptible to error than ASK Used for high-frequency (3 to 30 MHz) radio transmission Can be used at higher frequencies on LANs that use coaxial cable Overview of Wireless 5-26

27 MULTIPLE FREQUENCY-SHIFT KEYING (MFSK) More than two frequencies are used More bandwidth efficient but more susceptible to error s i ( t) = Acos2p f i t 1 i M f i = f c + (2i 1 M)f d f c = the carrier frequency f d = the difference frequency M = number of different signal elements = 2 L L = number of bits per signal element Overview of Wireless 5-27

28 PHASE-SHIFT KEYING (PSK) Two-level PSK (BPSK) Uses two phases to represent binary digits ( ) ( ) s t Acos 2p f t c Acos 2p f c t +p ( ) ( ) Acos 2p f t c -Acos 2p f c t binary 1 binary 0 binary 1 binary 0 Overview of Wireless 5-28

29 QUADRATURE PHASE-SHIFT KEYING (PSK) Four-level PSK (QPSK) Each element represents more than one bit æ Acos 2p f ì c t + p ö è ç 4 ø 11 æ ï Acos 2p f s(t)= í c t + 3p ö è ç 4 ø 01 æ Acos 2p f ï c t - 3p ö 00 è ç 4 ø î æ Acos 2p f c t - p ö 10 è ç 4 ø Overview of Wireless 5-29

30 QAM CONSTELLATION DIAGRAM Overview of Wireless 5-30

31 CODING AND ERROR CONTROL Error detection codes Detects the presence of an error Automatic repeat request (ARQ) protocols Block of data with error is discarded Transmitter retransmits that block of data Error correction codes, or forward correction codes (FEC) Designed to detect and correct errors Overview of Wireless 5-31

32 ERROR DETECTION PROCESS Transmitter For a given frame, an error-detecting code (check bits) is calculated from data bits Check bits are appended to data bits Receiver Separates incoming frame into data bits and check bits Calculates check bits from received data bits Compares calculated check bits against received check bits Detected error occurs if mismatch Overview of Wireless 5-32

33 PARITY CHECK Parity bit appended to a block of data Even parity Added bit ensures an even number of 1s Odd parity Added bit ensures an odd number of 1s Example, 7-bit character [ ] Even parity [ ] Odd parity [ ] Overview of Wireless 5-33

34 CYCLIC REDUNDANCY CHECK (CRC) Transmitter For a k-bit block, transmitter generates an (n-k)-bit frame check sequence (FCS) Resulting frame of n bits is exactly divisible by predetermined number Receiver Divides incoming frame by predetermined number If no remainder, assumes no error Overview of Wireless 5-34

35 WIRELESS TRANSMISSION ERRORS Error detection requires retransmission Detection inadequate for wireless applications Error rate on wireless link can be high, results in a large number of retransmissions Long propagation delay compared to transmission time Overview of Wireless 5-35

36 BLOCK ERROR CORRECTION CODES Transmitter Forward error correction (FEC) encoder maps each k-bit block into an n-bit block codeword Codeword is transmitted; analog for wireless transmission Receiver Incoming signal is demodulated Block passed through an FEC decoder Overview of Wireless 5-36

37 5.15 FORWARD ERROR CORRECTION PROCESS Overview of Wireless 5-37

38 FEC DECODER OUTCOMES No errors present Codeword produced by decoder matches original codeword Decoder detects and corrects bit errors Decoder detects but cannot correct bit errors; reports uncorrectable error Decoder incorrectly corrects bit errors Error pattern looks like a different block of data was sent Decoder detects no bit errors, though errors are present Overview of Wireless 5-38

39 AUTOMATIC REPEAT REQUEST Mechanism used in data link control and transport protocols Relies on use of an error detection code (such as CRC) Flow Control Error Control Overview of Wireless 5-39

40 FIGURE 5.20 PARALLEL CONCATENATION OF TWO RSC ENCODERS Overview of Wireless 5-40

41 ERROR CONTROL Mechanisms to detect and correct transmission errors Types of errors: Lost PDU : a PDU fails to arrive Damaged PDU : PDU arrives with errors Overview of Wireless 5-41

42 5.21 MODEL OF PDU TRANSMISSION Overview of Wireless 5-42

43 GO-BACK-N ARQ Acknowledgments RR = receive ready (no errors occur) REJ = reject (error detected) Contingencies Damaged PDU Damaged RR Damaged REJ Overview of Wireless 5-43

44 5.22 GO-BACK-N ARQ Overview of Wireless 5-44

45 HYBRID ARQ Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request (HARQ) Neither FEC or ARQ is adequate in practical situations FEC may add unnecessary redundancy ARQ may cause excessive delays from retransmissions HARQ is widely used Uses combination of FEC and ARQ Overview of Wireless 5-45

46 HYBRID ARQ Additional HARQ approaches Soft decision decoding Chase combining Soft decision information from a previous frame not corrected by FEC is used with retransmissions Chase combining uses exact same frames retransmitted each time Incremental redundancy Different, maybe more, coding used each retransmission Uses less overhead for the first transmissions Provides stronger correction Overview of Wireless 5-46

47 HYBRID ARQ Additional approaches Puncturing Remove bits to decrease the coding rate, say from 1/2 to 1/3 Replace bits at the receiver with random values Result may still be effective enough to correct errors Allows easier adaptation of coding rates Channel quality information will be used to find the best adaptive modulation and coding for HARQ Parallel HARQ processes can proceed while others are waiting for retransmissions Overview of Wireless 5-47

48 ORTHOGONAL FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (OFDM) OFDM created great expansion in wireless networks Greater efficiency in bps/hz Main air interface in the change from 3G to 4G Also expanded rates Critical technology for broadband wireless access WiMAX Overview of Wireless 5-48

49 HOW OFDM WORKS Also called multicarrier modulation Start with a data stream of R bps Could be sent with bandwidth Nf b With bit duration 1/R OFDM splits into N parallel data streams Called subcarriers Each with bandwidth f b And data rate R/N (bit time N/R) Overview of Wireless 5-49

50 ORTHOGONALITY The spacing of the f b frequencies allows tight packing of signals Actually with overlap between the signals Signals at spacing of f b,2f b, 3f b,etc. The choice of f b is related to the bit rate to make the signals orthogonal Traditional FDM makes signals completely avoid frequency overlap OFDM allows overlap which greatly increases capacity Overview of Wireless 5-50

51 FIGURE 5.24 ILLUSTRATION OF ORTHOGONALITY OF OFDM Overview of Wireless 5-51

52 BENEFITS OF OFDM Frequency selective fading only affects some subcarriers More importantly, OFDM overcomes intersymbol interference (ISI) ISI is a caused by multipath signals arriving in later bits OFDM bit times are much, much longer (by a factor of N) ISI is dramatically reduced OFDM s long bit times eliminate most of the ISI OFDM also uses a cyclic prefix (CP) to overcome the residual ISI Adds additional time to the OFDM symbol before the real data is sent Called the guard interval ISI diminishes before the data starts Overview of Wireless 5-52

53 OFDMA Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) uses OFDM to share the wireless channel Different users can have different slices of time and different groups of subcarriers Subcarriers are allocated in groups Called subchannels or resource blocks Too much computation to allocate every subcarrier separately Single-carrier FDMA (SC-FDMA) Similar structure and performance to OFDMA Lower peak to average power ratio than OFMDA Mobile user benefits battery life, power efficiency, lower cost Good for uplinks Multiple access is not possible At one time, all subcarriers must be dedicated to one user Overview of Wireless 5-53

54 FIGURE 5.26 OFDM AND OFDMA Overview of Wireless 5-54

55 SPREAD SPECTRUM Input is fed into a channel encoder Produces analog signal with narrow bandwidth Signal is further modulated using sequence of digits Spreading code or spreading sequence Generated by pseudonoise, or pseudo-random number generator Effect of modulation is to increase bandwidth of signal to be transmitted Overview of Wireless 5-55

56 SPREAD SPECTRUM On receiving end, digital sequence is used to demodulate the spread spectrum signal Signal is fed into a channel decoder to recover data Overview of Wireless 5-56

57 FREQUENCY HOPING SPREAD SPECTRUM (FHSS) Signal is broadcast over seemingly random series of radio frequencies A number of channels allocated for the FH signal Width of each channel corresponds to bandwidth of input signal Signal hops from frequency to frequency at fixed intervals Transmitter operates in one channel at a time Bits are transmitted using some encoding scheme At each successive interval, a new carrier frequency is selected Overview of Wireless 5-57

58 5.28 FREQUENCY HOPPING EXAMPLE Overview of Wireless 5-58

59 DIRECT SEQUENCE SPREAD SPECTRUM (DSSS) Each bit in original signal is represented by multiple bits in the transmitted signal Spreading code spreads signal across a wider frequency band Spread is in direct proportion to number of bits used One technique combines digital information stream with the spreading code bit stream using exclusive- OR (Figure 5.30) Overview of Wireless 5-59

60 5.30 EXAMPLE OF DIRECT SEQUENCE SPREAD SPECTRUM Overview of Wireless 5-60

61 CODE-DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (CDMA) Basic Principles of CDMA D = rate of data signal Break each bit into k chips Chips are a user-specific fixed pattern Chip data rate of new channel = kd Each user encodes with a different spreading code Overview of Wireless 5-61

62 ANTENNAS An antenna is an electrical conductor or system of conductors Transmission - radiates electromagnetic energy into space Reception - collects electromagnetic energy from space In two-way communication, the same antenna can be used for transmission and reception The Wireless Channel 6-62

63 RADIATION PATTERNS Radiation pattern Graphical representation of radiation properties of an antenna Depicted as two-dimensional cross section Beam width (or half-power beam width) Measure of directivity of antenna Reception pattern Receiving antenna s equivalent to radiation pattern Sidelobes Extra energy in directions outside the mainlobe Nulls Very low energy in between mainlobe and sidelobes The Wireless Channel 6-63

64 6.1 ANTENNA RADIATION PATTERNS The Wireless Channel 6-64

65 TYPES OF ANTENNAS Isotropic antenna (idealized) Radiates power equally in all directions Dipole antennas Half-wave dipole antenna (or Hertz antenna) Quarter-wave vertical antenna (or Marconi antenna) Parabolic Reflective Antenna Directional Antennas Arrays of antennas In a linear array or other configuration Signal amplitudes and phases to each antenna are adjusted to create a directional pattern Very useful in modern systems The Wireless Channel 6-65

66 6.2 SIMPLE ANTENNAS The Wireless Channel 6-66

67 y y z x z x Side view (xy-plane) Side view (zy-plane) (a) Simple dipole Top view (xz-plane) y y z x z x Side view (xy-plane) Side view (zy-plane) Top view (xz-plane) (b) Directed antenna 6.3 RADIATION PATTERN IN THREE DIMENSIONS The Wireless Channel 6-67

68 6.4 PARABOLIC REFLECTIVE ANTENNAS The Wireless Channel 6-68

69 Antenna gain ANTENNA GAIN Power output, in a particular direction, compared to that produced in any direction by a perfect omnidirectional antenna (isotropic antenna) Effective area Related to physical size and shape of antenna The Wireless Channel 6-69

70 SPECTRUM CONSIDERATIONS Controlled by regulatory bodies Carrier frequency Signal Power Multiple Access Scheme Divide into time slots Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) Divide into frequency bands Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) Different signal encodings Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) The Wireless Channel 6-70

71 SPECTRUM CONSIDERATIONS Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in the United States regulates spectrum Military Broadcasting Public Safety Mobile Amateur Government exclusive, non-government exclusive, or both Many other categories The Wireless Channel 6-71

72 SPECTRUM CONSIDERATIONS Industrial, Scientific, and Medical (ISM) bands Can be used without a license As long as power and spread spectrum regulations are followed ISM bands are used for WLANs Wireless Personal Area networks Internet of Things The Wireless Channel 6-72

73 PROPAGATION MODES Ground-wave propagation Sky-wave propagation Line-of-sight propagation The Wireless Channel 6-73

74 6.5 WIRELESS PROPAGATION MODES The Wireless Channel 6-74

75 GROUND WAVE PROPAGATION Follows contour of the earth Can propagate considerable distances Frequencies up to 2 MHz Example AM radio The Wireless Channel 6-75

76 SKY WAVE PROPAGATION Signal reflected from ionized layer of atmosphere back down to earth Signal can travel a number of hops, back and forth between ionosphere and earth s surface Reflection effect caused by refraction Examples Amateur radio CB radio The Wireless Channel 6-76

77 LINE-OF-SIGHT PROPAGATION Transmitting and receiving antennas must be within line of sight Satellite communication signal above 30 MHz not reflected by ionosphere Ground communication antennas within effective line of site due to refraction Refraction bending of microwaves by the atmosphere Velocity of electromagnetic wave is a function of the density of the medium When wave changes medium, speed changes Wave bends at the boundary between mediums The Wireless Channel 6-77

78 FIVE BASIC PROPAGATION MECHANISMS 1. Free-space propagation 2. Transmission Through a medium Refraction occurs at boundaries 3. Reflections Waves impinge upon surfaces that are large compared to the signal wavelength 4. Diffraction Secondary waves behind objects with sharp edges 5. Scattering Interactions between small objects or rough surfaces The Wireless Channel 6-78

79 6.6 REFRACTION OF AN ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE The Wireless Channel 6-79

80 LOS WIRELESS TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENTS Attenuation and attenuation distortion Free space loss Noise Atmospheric absorption Multipath Refraction Thermal noise The Wireless Channel 6-80

81 ATTENUATION Strength of signal falls off with distance over transmission medium Attenuation factors for unguided media: Received signal must have sufficient strength so that circuitry in the receiver can interpret the signal Signal must maintain a level sufficiently higher than noise to be received without error Attenuation is greater at higher frequencies, causing distortion The Wireless Channel 6-81

82 CATEGORIES OF NOISE Thermal Noise Intermodulation noise Crosstalk Impulse Noise The Wireless Channel 6-82

83 THERMAL NOISE Thermal noise due to agitation of electrons Present in all electronic devices and transmission media Cannot be eliminated Function of temperature Particularly significant for satellite communication The Wireless Channel 6-83

84 NOISE TERMINOLOGY Intermodulation noise occurs if signals with different frequencies share the same medium Interference caused by a signal produced at a frequency that is the sum or difference of original frequencies Crosstalk unwanted coupling between signal paths Impulse noise irregular pulses or noise spikes Short duration and of relatively high amplitude Caused by external electromagnetic disturbances, or faults and flaws in the communications system The Wireless Channel 6-84

85 OTHER IMPAIRMENTS Atmospheric absorption water vapor and oxygen contribute to attenuation Multipath obstacles reflect signals so that multiple copies with varying delays are received Refraction bending of radio waves as they propagate through the atmosphere The Wireless Channel 6-85

86 THE EFFECTS OF MULTIPATH PROPAGATION Reflection, diffraction, and scattering Multiple copies of a signal may arrive at different phases If phases add destructively, the signal level relative to noise declines, making detection more difficult Intersymbol interference (ISI) One or more delayed copies of a pulse may arrive at the same time as the primary pulse for a subsequent bit Rapid signal fluctuations Over a few centimeters The Wireless Channel 6-86

87 6.10 EXAMPLES OF MULTIPATH INTERFERENCE The Wireless Channel 6-87

88 6.11 SKETCH OF THREE IMPORTANT PROPAGATION MECHANISMS The Wireless Channel 6-88

89 CHANNEL CORRECTION MECHANISMS Forward error correction Adaptive equalization Adaptive modulation and coding Diversity techniques and MIMO OFDM Spread sprectrum Bandwidth expansion The Wireless Channel 6-89

90 FORWARD ERROR CORRECTION Transmitter adds error-correcting code to data block Code is a function of the data bits Receiver calculates error-correcting code from incoming data bits If calculated code matches incoming code, no error occurred If error-correcting codes don t match, receiver attempts to determine bits in error and correct Subject of Chapter 10 The Wireless Channel 6-90

91 DIVERSITY TECHNIQUES Diversity is based on the fact that individual channels experience independent fading events Space diversity techniques involving physical transmission path, spacing antennas Frequency diversity techniques where the signal is spread out over a larger frequency bandwidth or carried on multiple frequency carriers Time diversity techniques aimed at spreading the data out over time Use of diversity Selection diversity select the best signal Combining diversity combine the signals The Wireless Channel 6-91

92 MULTIPLE INPUT MULTIPLE OUTPUT (MIMO) ANTENNAS Use antenna arrays for Diversity different signals from different antennas Multiple streams parallel data streams Beamforming directional antennas Multi-user MIMO directional beams to multiple simultaneous users Modern systems 4 4 (4 transmitter and 4 reciever antennas) 8 8 Two dimensional arrays of 64 antennas Future: Massive MIMO with many more antennas The Wireless Channel 6-92

93 6.18 FOUR USES OF MIMO The Wireless Channel 6-93

94 6.19 MIMO SCHEME The Wireless Channel 6-94

95 CHANNEL CORRECTION MECHANISMS Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) Chapter 8 Splits signal into many lower bit rate streams called subcarriers Overcomes frequency selectivity from multipath Spaces subcarriers apart in overlapping yet orthogonal carrier frequencies Spread spectrum (Chapter 9) Expand a signal to 100 times its bandwidth An alternative method to overcome frequency selectivity Users can share the channel by using different spreading codes Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) The Wireless Channel 6-95

96 BANDWIDTH EXPANSION A signal can only provide a limited bps/hz More bandwidth is needed Carrier aggregation Combine multiple channels Example: Fourth-generation LTE combines third-generation carriers Frequency reuse Limit propagation range to an area Use the same frequencies again when sufficiently far away Use large coverage areas (macro cells) and smaller coverage areas (outdoor picocells or relays and indoor femtocells) Millimeter wave (mmwave) Higher carrier frequencies have more bandwidth available 30 to 300 GHz bands with millimeter wavelengths Yet these are expensive to use and have problems with obstructions The Wireless Channel 6-96

97 FIGURE LTE CARRIER AGGREGATION The Wireless Channel 6-97