Figure 10.1 Basic structure of SONET

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1 CHAPTER 10 OPTICAL NETWORKS 10.1 SONET/SDH SONET (Synchronous Optical NETwork) is a standard which was developed in the mid-1980s for fiber optic networks. SONET defines interface standards at the physical layer of the OSI layer model. SONET establishes Optical Carrier (OC) levels from 51.8 Mbps (OC-1) to 9.95 Gbps (OC-192). The international equivalent of SONET is calledsdh (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy) Transmission Formats and Speeds Figure 10.1 Basic structure of SONET The basic structure of an SONET frame is shown in Figure It is a two dimensional structure. It consists of 90 columns by 9 rows of bytes. We know that, one byte is eight bit.the following are terminology of SONET: Sectionconnects adjacent pieces of equipment Line is a longer link that connects two SONET devices and Path is end-to-end connection. The duration for the fundamental SONET frame is125µs. Then, the transmission bit rate of the basic SONET signal is calculated by, (90 bytes/row)(9 rows/frame)(8 bits/byte)(125 µs/frame) = Mb/s. The above mentioned signal issynchronous transport signal-1 or STS-1 signal.the remaining SONET signals are integer multiples of STS-1 value. Bit rate of STS-N = N X Mb/s. While converting electrical to optical signal during modulation, the resultant physical layer optical signal is called OC-N. OC stands for optical carrier. In SDH, the basic rate is equivalent to STS-3, or Mb/s. This signal is called as synchronous transport module level-1 (STM- 1). Higher rates signals are known as STM-M.

2 In Figure 10.1, the first three columnsconsist of transport overhead bytes. These bytes carry network manage information. The remaining fields of 87 columns consist of the synchronous payload envelope (SPE). These SPE carries user data as well as 9 bytes of path overhead (POH).The POH bytes are arranged in a column, but these bytes can be located anywhere in the SPE. The POH should take care of the following works: performance monitoring by the end equipment status, signal labeling a tracing function and a user channel. For N>1, the columns of the frame become N times wider, with the number of rows remaining at nine, as shown in Figure 10.2a. Thus, an STS-3 (or STM-1) frame is having 270 columns wide with the first nine columns consist of overhead information and the next 261 columns consists of payload data. The basic structure for SDH is shown in Figure 10.2b. An STM-N frame has 125µs duration and consists of nine rows, each of which has a length of 270 X N bytes. Since, there is difference in the line and section overhead bytes in SONET and SDH, a translation mechanism is needed to interconnect and SDH equipment. Figure 10.2 Basic formats of a) an STS N SONET frame b) an STM-N SDH frame Optical Interfaces SONET and SDH specifications provide the following optical source characteristics inorder to interconnect equipment from different manufactures: Receiver sensitivity and Transmission distances for various types of fibers.

3 The optical fiber is categorized in the following three categories and operational windows: Graded-index multimode in 1310 nm (O-band) Conventional nondispersion-shifted single-mode in 1310 nm and 1550 nm windows (Oband and C-band). Dispersion-shifted single-mode in 1550 nm window (C-band) SONET/SDH Rings SONET and SDH are configured as either a ring or mesh architecture. This is done to create loop diversity for uninterrupted service protection purpose in case of link or equipment failures. The traffic flowing along a certain path can automatically be switched to an alternate or standby path following failure or degradation of the link segment. Hence, SONET/SDH rings are commonly called self-healing rings. SONET/SDH rings are classified into three main features, each with two alternatives. So, it yields 8 possible combinations of ring types.they are given below: 1. Either two-fiber or four-fiber run between the nodes on a ring. 2. The operating signals can travel either clock wise or both the directions. If the operating signal travels in clockwise, it is termed a unidirectional ring. If the operating signal travels in both the directions around the ring, it is called bidirectional ring. 3. Protection switching can be performed either through a line-switching or a pathswitching scheme.the line switching moves all signal channels of an entire OC-N channel to a protection fiber.but, path switching moves individual payload channels within OC-N channel. Two types of architectures for the above mentioned 8 possible combinations of ring types are popular for SONET and SDH networks. They are: Two-fiber UPSR (Two- fiber, uni directional, path-switched ring). Two-fiber or four-fiber BLSR (Two-fiber or Four-fiber, bi-directional, line switched ring). Two fiber unidirectional path switched ring networksis shown in Figure In a unidirectional ring, on the primary path the signal travels clock wise around the ring. For example, the connection established from node 1 to node 3 uses link 1 and 2, whereas, the traffic from node 3 to node 1 uses link 3 and 4.If node 1 and 3, exchange information at an OC-3 rate in an OC-12 rings, then they use one-quarter of the capacity around the ring on all primary links. In a unidirectional ring, the counter clockwise path is used as an alternate route for protection against the link or node failures.this protection path (used links 5 through 8) is indicated by dashed lines. To achieve protection, the signal from the transmitting node is dual-fed into both the

4 primary and protection fibers. This establishes a selected protection path on which traffic close counter clockwise,ie., from node 1 to node 3 via links 5 and 6 and the same is shown in Figure Figure 10.3a) Generic two-fiber unidirectional path-switched ring (UPSR) with a counterrotating protection path. b) Flow of primary protection traffic from node 1 to node 3 According to Figure 10.3b, two identical signals from a particular node arrive at their destination with different delays from opposite directions. The receiver chooses signal from the primary path.also, it continuously compares the fidelity of each signal and selects the alternate signal if severe degradation or loss of the primary signal.based on the quality of the received signal, each path is individually switched.the architecture of four-fiber bidirectional lineswitched ring is shown in Figure 10.4.The two primary fiber loopsare used for normal bidirectional communication. The other two secondary fiber loops are used for protection purposes.the four-fiber BLSR uses twice of two-fiber UPSR cabling capacity, because of the traffic between two nodes sent only partially around the rings. Consider the connection between nodes 1 and 3. The traffic from node 1 to node 3 flows in a clock wise direction along links 1p and 2p. In the return path, the traffic flows in counter clock wise from node 3 to node 1 along links 7p and 8p. Thus, information exchange between node 1 and 3 does not tie up any of the primary channelbandwidth in other half of the ring. Figure 10.4 Architecture of a four-fiber bidirectional line-switched ring (BLSR)

5 To know about the function and flexibility of the standby links in the four-fiber BLSR, consider first the case where a transmitter or receiver circuits card used on the primary ring fails in either node 3 or 4. In this situation, the affected nodes detect a loss of signal condition and switch both primary fibers connecting these nodes to the secondary protection pair, as shown in the Figure10.5.The protection segment between node 3 and 4 now becomes part of the primary bidirectional loop. The exact same reconfiguration scenario will occur when the primary fiber connecting node 3 and 4 breaks. Note that in either case the other links remains unaffected. Figure 10.5 Reconfiguration of a four-fiber BLSR under transceiver or line failure Suppose an entire node fails, or both the primary and the protection fibers in a given span are severed which could happen if they are in the same cable duct between two nodes. In this case, the nodes on the either side of the failed inter-nodal span internally switch the primary path connections from the receiver and transmitter from the protection fibers, in order to loop traffic back to the previous node. This process again forms a closed ring, but now with all of the primary and protection fibers in use around the entire ring, as shown in the Figure Figure 10.6 Reconfiguration of a four-fiber BLSr under node or fiber-cable failure SONET/SDH Networks Commercially available SONET/SDH equipment allows configuration of a variety of networks architectures, as shown in the Figure The OC-192 four-fibre BLSR could be a large national backbone network with a number of OC-48 rings attached in different cities. The OC-48 rings can have lower capacity localized OC-12 or OC-3 rings or chains attached to them, thereby providing the possibility of attaching equipment that has mechanism and SONET/SDH network management procedures.

6 Figure 10.7 Generic configuration of a large SONET or SDH network consisting of linear chains and various types of interconnected rings A fundamental SONET/SDH network element is the add or drop multiplexer(adm). This piece of equipment is a fully synchronous, byte oriented multiplexer that is used to add and drop such channels within an OC-N signals. Figure 10.8 shows the functional concept of an ADM. Here, various OC-12s and OC-3s are multiplexed into an OC-48 stream. Upon entering an ADM, these sub channels individually dropped by the ADM and others can be added. For example in figure one OC-12 and two OC-3 channels enters the left most ADM as a part of an OC-48 channel. The OC-12 is passed through and the two OC-3s are dropped by the first ADM. Then, two more OC-12s and one OC-3 are multiplexed together with a OC-12 channel that is passing through and the aggregate OC-48 is sent to another ADM node downstream. Figure 10.8 Functional concept of an electronic add/drop multiplexer for SONET/SDH applications The SONET/SDH architectures can also be implemented with multiples wavelengths. For example, Figure 10.9 shows a dense WDM deployment on an OC-192 trunk ring for N wavelengths (one could have n=16). The different wavelengths output from each OC-192 transmitter are passed first through a variable attenuated to equalize the output powers. These are then fed into a wavelength multiplexer, possibly amplified by a post transmitter optical amplifier and sent out over the transmission fibre. Additional optical amplifiers might be located at intermediate points and/or at the receiving end.

7 Figure 10.9 DWDM deployment of n wavelengths in an OC-192/STM-64 trunk ring 10.2 SOLITON BASED OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION: The soliton happening was first described by John Scott Russell. Solitions are the high speed pulses which travel through the fiber without any change in their shape or amplitude or velocity.consider a pulse of light traveling in glass. This pulse travels at several different frequencies.due to dispersion, these different frequencies will travel at different speeds and the shape of the pulse will therefore change over time. In soliton, the pulse's shape won't change over time and the pulse has just the right shape. Here, the Kerr effect will cancel the dispersion effect. The families of the pulses that do not change in their shape are called fundamental solitons, and the pulses which undergo periodic shape changes are known as higher-order solitons Soliton Pulses Solitons are very narrow laser pulses of pulse width second with high peak powers more than 100 mw.solitons are used to increase the bit rate of transmission capacity of the fiber by reducing the losses and dispersion effects. In soliton, the propagation of laser pulses through the optical fiber without undergoing any loss or dispersion. Soliton is a very narrow, high power pulse which would never broaden neither in the time domain (as in linear dispersion) nor in the frequency domain (as in self phase modulation). In fiber optic communication, pulse is affected by both GVD and Kerr non-linearity. Due to GVD, optical pulse width will be broadening with respect to time. When a high intensity optical pulse is coupled to fiber, the optical excitation in the refractive index induces phase fluctuations in the propagating wave. Thereby, chirping happens in the pulse. The result is that the front of the pulse (at smaller times) has lower frequencies and the back of the pulse (at later times) has higher frequencies than the carrier frequency and is shown in Figure

8 Figure High intensity pulses Inside the optical fiber, the high intensity portion of the pulse will propagate in a high refractive region of the fiber compared with the lower intensity portion of the pulse. This intensity dependent refractive index follows the phenomenon called self phase modulation (SPM). Due to this occurrence, the distance traveled by the optical pulse inside the fiber is continuously increased due to lower speed of the high intensity portion of the pulse. In the frequency domain, there is broadening of the pulse. But in the time domain, there is no broadening of the pulse. Further SPM leads to a chirping of the trailing edge of the pulse. There is zero dispersion at the operating wavelength of 1300nm.If operating wavelength is greater than 1300nm, then the fiber has positive group velocity dispersion. So the low frequency components of the pulse will travel at a lower speed than the high frequency components of the pulse. But in the case of self phase modulation, the effect is opposite. That is, the low frequency components of the pulse will travel faster than the high frequency components. Thus the broadening of the spectrum by SPM is properly compensated by the compressions of the spectrum by group velocity spectrum, and then the pulse will propagate without change in the temporal shape and without broadening of the spectrum of the pulse. Even though there is no dispersion effect, still there is some loss in the fiber due to scattering and absorptions. To compensate this small loss in the transmission link, for every 100 km or 150 km length, an optical fiber laser amplifier of length 10 m is connected. Due to sufficient amplification, the received signal at the receiver end is without loss of power. Thus, during the propagation of the optical pulse through the fiber, there is no change in pulse shape and height and width. This propagation is called soliton propagation Soliton parameter Figure 10.11soliton pulse

9 Figure 10.11shows the soliton pulse with respect to normalized time. The Full Width Half Modulation (FWHM) T s of the soliton normalized time is given by, (τ) with (10.2.1) where, T 0 is the basic normalized time unit. The parameter P peak is the solitonpeak power is given by, (10.2.3) where, A eff is the effective area n 2 is the nonlinear intensity-dependent refractive-index coefficient and L disp is measured in km. (10.2.4) The soliton pulse undergoes changes in its shape and spectrum when N>1. It resumes its initial shape after at multiple distances of the soliton period. It is given by, Soliton Width and Spacing (10.2.5) The soliton width must be a small fraction of the small bit slot.so there is no need of NRZ coding as in the digital communication. Hence, RZ format is used. If T B is the width of the bit slot, bit rate B is represented as, (10.3.1) where, T s width of the half maximum and is the normalized separation between neighboring solitons. The solitons are initially in phase. They are separated in periodic nature and by. The soliton oscillation period is given by, (10.3.2) There is mutual interactive force between in-phase solitons. This force results in periodic attraction, collapse and repulsion. The interaction distance is given by, (10.3.3)

10 EXAMPLES AND PROBLEMS Example5-1. An optical source has a circular emitting area of radius 25µm and an associated lambertian emission pattern. Determine B 0 if the amount of power coupled from this source into a graded index fiber with core radius of 20µm and a parabolic index profile as mw. Take n 1 and n 2 as 1.45 and respectively. Example5-2. Repeat the problem 1 for the case of a step index fiber. Example5-3. Repeat problems 1 and 2 for a case where the fiber core radius is 30µm. Comment on results. Example5-4. Let the average power launched into a fiber optic communication link be -3dBm. The minimum power which needs to be received for a prescribed BER is dbm. Determine the amount of power loss which could be tolerated in the link during transmission. If the end connector losses are 3 db and a system margin of 3dB is allowed, what will be the allowance for installed fiber optic cable loss? Example5-5.Consider a three channel WDM system with the wavelengths placed at f 1, f 2 =f 1 +Δf and f 3 =f 1 +3Δf on the frequency axis. Determine all the FWM products and plot them appropriately on the frequency axis along the constituent WDM wavelengths. Comment on the results. Example5-6. An engineer wants to create a link consisting of 40m of OM2 fiber that has a 500- MHz bandwidth and 100m of OM3 fiber that has a 2000MHz bandwidth. What is the effective maximum link length? Soln: L max = (40m) (2000/500) + 100m = 260m Pbm 7: For λ = 1550nm, A eff = 50µm 2, n 2 = 2.6 X cm 2 /W, and with the value of L disp = 202. Find the peak power. Soln:

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