V O = a(v I - V B ) (EQ. 10) V B = V O Z 1 / (Z 1 + Z 2 ), I B = 0 (EQ. 11) V O = av I - az 1 V O / (Z 1 + Z 2 ) (EQ. 12)

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1 APPLICATION NOTE Feedbck, Op Amps nd AN9415 Rev Introduction There re mny benefits [1] which result from the use of feedbck in electronic circuits, but the drwbcks re the incresed complexity of the clcultions nd the opportunity for the resulting circuit to ring or oscillte. This pper employs grphicl techniques to simplify stbility clcultions, thus enbling the designer to chieve stble, well behved circuit which meets ll resonble performnce criteri. Now the designer cn obtin the dvntges of feedbck without worrying bout ringing or oscilltion. Development of the Generl Feedbck Eqution Referring to the block digrm shown in Figure 1, Eqution 1, Eqution 2 nd Eqution 3 cn be written by inspection if it is ssumed tht there re no loding concerns between the blocks. The no loding ssumption is implicit in ll block digrm clcultions, nd this requires tht the output impednce of block be much lower thn the input impednce of the block it is driving. This is usully true by one or two orders of mgnitude. Algebric mnipultion of Eqution 1, Eqution 2 nd Eqution 3 yield Eqution 4 nd Eqution 5 which re the defining equtions for feedbck system. = EA (EQ. 1) E = (EQ. 2) E = /A (EQ. 3) / = A/(1 + A) (EQ. 4) E / = 1/(1 + A) (EQ. 5) E FIGURE 1. FEEDBACK SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAM The prmeter A, which usully includes the mplifier nd thus contins ctive elements, is clled the direct gin in this nlysis. The prmeter, which normlly contins only pssive components, is clled the feedbck fctor. Notice tht in Eqution 4 s the vlue of A pproches infinity, the quntity A, which is clled the loop gin, becomes much lrger thn one; thus, Eqution 4 cn be pproximted by Eqution 6. / is clled the closed loop gin, nd since the direct gin, or the mplifier response, is not included, the eqution for the closed loop gin it is independent of mplifier prmeter chnges. This is the mjor benefit of feedbck circuits. / = 1/ for A >> 1 (EQ. 6) A Eqution 4 is dequte to describe the stbility of ny feedbck circuit becuse ll feedbck circuits cn be reduced to the this form through block digrm reduction techniques [2]. The stbility of the feedbck circuit is determined by setting the denomintor of Eqution 4 equl to zero. 1 + A = 0 (EQ. 7) A = 1 = 1 / 180 (EQ. 8) Referring to Eqution 4 nd Eqution 8, it is observed tht if the mgnitude of the loop gin, A, cn chieve one while the phse equls 180 degrees, the closed loop gin becomes infinity becuse of division by zero. Since this stte is unstble, the circuit will oscillte, nd it will oscillte t the frequency where the phse shift equls to 180 degrees. If the loop gin t the frequency of oscilltion is slightly greter thn one it will be reduced to one by the reduction in gin suffered by the ctive elements s they pproch the limits of sturtion, but if the vlue of A is much greter thn one, gross nonlinerities cn occur nd the circuit my then cycle between sturtion limits. Preventing instbility is the essence of feedbck circuit design, thus this topic will be touched lightly here nd covered in detil lter. A good strting point for discussing stbility is finding n esy method to clculte it. Figure 2 shows tht the loop gin, A, cn be clculted from block digrm by opening current inputs, shorting voltge inputs, breking the loop nd clculting the response to test input signl. V TO / V TI = A (EQ. 9) The block digrm techniques cn be pplied to op mps thus reducing the stbility nlysis to simple tsk. The schemtic for noninverting mplifier is shown in Figure 3, nd the block digrm equivlent is shown in Figure 4. Eqution 10 nd Eqution 11 re combined to yield Eqution 12 which describes the block digrm shown in Figure 4A, while block digrm trnsformtions [3] re employed to get to Figure 4B. V TO V TI FIGURE 2. BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR COMPUTING THE LOOP GAIN = ( V B ) (EQ. 10) V B = Z 1 / (Z 1 + Z 2 ), I B = 0 (EQ. 11) = Z 1 / (Z 1 + Z 2 ) (EQ. 12) A AN9415 Rev Pge 1 of 13

2 V A + Z 2 + V TO V TI Z 2 V TI Z 1 /(Z 1 + Z 2 ) V B Z 1 V TI Z 1 FIGURE 3. NONINVERTING CIRCUIT The block digrm shown in Figure 4A is written by inspection of Eqution 12. The block digrm shown in Figure 4B is derived from Figure 4A by block digrm mnipultions. Eqution 13 is derived from Eqution 12 by lgebric mnipultion, or it cn be written by inspection of Figure 4B becuse the system is shown in stndrd form. V A Z 1 /(Z 1 + Z 2 ) FIGURE 4A. BLOCK DIAGRAM AS WRITTEN FROM EQUATION 12 V B FIGURE 5. NONINVERTING OP AMP WITH INPUT GROUNDED AND FEEDBACK LOOP BROKEN V TO Z 1 = = A V TI Z 1 + Z 2 (EQ. 14) Referring to the inverting op mp configurtion shown in Figure 6, the nlysis will be performed by working from the mplifier circuit to the block digrm. The closed loop gin equtions re derived in references one nd six s well s most electronic text books. The closed loop gin which is equl to 1/ is known to be Z 2 /Z 1 ; thus, is clculted s Z 1 /Z 2 with the minus sign indicting negtive input. Referring to Figure 6, if is set to zero nd the loop is broken t the negtive input to the op mp the circuit is identicl to tht shown in Figure 5. + V Z Z I 1 V A 2 Z 1 /(Z 1 + Z 2 ) FIGURE 4B. AFTER BLOCK DIAGRAM MANIPULATION FIGURE 4. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE NONINVERTING OP AMP AS SHOWN IN EQUATION 12 / = /(1 + Z 1 / (Z 1 + Z 2 )) (EQ. 13) FIGURE 6. INVERTING OP AMP SCHEMATIC An exmintion of Figure 5 nd Figure 6 revels tht the loop gin, A, is identicl for both the inverting nd noninverting circuit configurtions. The loop gin is the only prmeter tht determines stbility, nd it is not function of the loction of the inputs. Hence the loop gin for the inverting op mp is given to us by Eqution 14. Now tht A nd 1/ re both known, A cn be determined by multipliction to be Z 2 /(Z 1 + Z 2 ). Since the direct gin nd the loop gin re both known Figure 7 cn be constructed from these quntities. The loop gin, A, is equl to Z 1 /(Z 1 +Z 2 ), the closed loop gin, 1/, is equl to (Z 1 +Z 2 )/Z 1, nd the direct gin, A, is equl to the op mp gin,. The loop gin cn be determined from Figure 4B by inspection, or if the system block is not vilble the loop gin cn be obtined directly from the mplifier schemtic s shown in Figure 5. First set voltge sources to zero by grounding them, then open current sources, brek the feedbck loop t ny convenient plce nd then clculte the loop gin. Remember, the output impednce of the op mp must be much lower thn the feedbck impednce so tht block digrm techniques cn be used. The test input is V TI, nd it is mplified by the op mp gin,. The op mp output, V TI is divided by before it is fed bck s V TO. Z 2 /(Z 1 + Z 2 ) Z 1 /Z 2 FIGURE 7. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE INVERTING OP AMP Eqution 15, which is the closed loop gin eqution for n inverting op mp cn be written directly from Figure 7. As () pproches infinity in Eqution 15, the closed loop gin pproches Z 2 /Z 1. V A AN9415 Rev Pge 2 of 13

3 Z 2 Z 1 + Z 2 = Z Z 1 + Z 2 (EQ. 15) The closed loop gin for the noninverting circuit, / = (Z 1 + Z 2 ) / Z 1, is different from the closed loop gin for the inverting circuit, / = Z 2 / Z 1. It will lwys be the cse tht the loop gin, hence the stbility, is independent of the loction of the inputs, but the closed loop performnce is highly dependent on the plcement of the input. Mny circuits tke dvntge of this phenomen to gin better performnce s will be shown in the benefits section. A NON INV = ; which is to A INV = Z 2 / (Z 1 + Z 2 ) (EQ. 16) Compring the block digrms of the noninverting nd inverting circuits revels tht their direct gins re different, nd this explins why there re some slight performnce differences between the configurtions. The noninverting circuit with the higher direct gin hs less closed loop error; t closed loop gin of 2 for both circuits the noninverting circuit hs 3.5 more loop gin. The inverting circuit is more stble for the sme mgnitude of closed loop gin; i.e., for closed loop gin of 2, A INV = 0.33 nd A NONINV = 0.5. Normlly these differences re minor, but they re pointed out becuse they my be tken dvntge of or they cn cuse very subtle problems in unique situtions. There re mny other op mp circuit configurtions, but they will ll reduce to these two bsic forms; ech of which is vrition of the bsic feedbck circuit shown in Figure 1. Letting Z 1 nd or Z 2 equl vrious combintions of RLCs will give different closed loop performnce, but the nlysis techniques remin the sme. More complicted circuit configurtions cn ll be reduced to these simple circuits through block digrm reduction techniques nd superposition. Benefits of Feedbck The tolernces nd drift coefficients of pssive components re much less thn those ssocited with ctive components. If the circuit trnsfer function cn be mde to be dependent only on the pssive component prmeters it will be much more stble circuit; feedbck ccomplishes this through the direct gin s shown here. Differentiting the closed loop Eqution 4, with respect to the direct gin yields Equtions 17 nd Eqution 18 shown below. Notice tht the percentge chnge in the closed loop gin is the percentge chnge in the direct gin divided by the loop gin. Thus for very high loop gins the initil ccurcy nd drift will be function of the pssive components rther thn of the direct or mplifier gin. Although the feedbck reduces the gin errors, other mplifier errors such s input voltge offset re not ffected by the feedbck becuse they occur s n input rther thn within the feedbck loop. d / da 1 1 ³/ = 1 + A 2 = 1 + A A (EQ. 17) d / da 1 = / A 1 + A (EQ. 18) All mplifiers hve noise nd distortion chrcteristics ssocited with them, nd low noise or low distortion mplifiers commnd premium price. Very often feedbck cn be used t no cost increse to reduce the effects of distortion nd noise. Both closed loop nd open loop systems re shown in Figure 8 nd Figure 9; notice tht both systems hve the sme number of components except for the pssive feedbck elements. V 0 V 1 V 2 A 1 A 2 FIGURE 8. CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM V 0 V 1 V 2 A 1 A 2 FIGURE 9. OPEN LOOP SYSTEM Eqution 19 nd Eqution 20 re derived from the closed loop nd open loop systems shown in Figure 8 nd Figure 9. If Eqution 19 is rewritten s shown in Eqution 21 it is obvious tht Eqution 22 results when the quntity A 1 A 2 pproches infinity s it will in n idel system. A 1 A 2 + V 0 A 2 V 1 V 2 = A 1 A 2 1+ A 1 A A 1 A 2 = A 1 A 2 + V 0 + A 2 V 1 + V 2 + V 0 V 1 /A 1 V 2 /A 1 A 2 = 1 A 1 A A 1 A A 1 A V 0 V 1 /A 1 = + (EQ. 19) (EQ. 20) (EQ. 21) For A 1 A 2 pproching infinity (EQ. 22) Now let V 0 nd V 1 represent the mplifier s internl noise referred to the input, nd let V 2 represent the noise from the ny other system components. Notice from Eqution 22 tht in the closed loop system V 2 hs disppered, V 1 is decresed proportionl to the gin A 1 nd tht the input noise hs only been multiplied by the closed loop gin, 1/. Conversely, Eqution 20 indictes tht in the open loop system the input noise hs been multiplied by A 1 A 2 (which would be equivlent to the closed loop gin), tht V 1 is multiplied by A 2 nd tht V 2 is present. The feedbck in the closed loop system hs drmticlly reduced the noise from the sources which follow the mplifier A 1 so this cn become big design dvntge. In the closed loop system the mplifier A 1 should be selected for it s AN9415 Rev Pge 3 of 13

4 excellent noise performnce, but the mplifier A 2 cn be selected bsed on some other criteri such s cost. This option is not vilble in the open loop system. Very often when driving low impednces like spekers, the output mplifiers re driven s close to the power supply rils s possible to obtin the mximum dynmic rnge. One result of this prctice is tht some distortion of the signl occurs s ctive device prmeters re driven so tht they become nonliner. This nd most other sources of distortion usully occur in the output stges of the mplifier. Becuse the distortion occurs t the output it cn be represented by V 2 in Eqution 19, nd this quntity goes to zero s the direct gin pproches infinity, so it is essentilly eliminted by feedbck. The connection from the speker driver output to the premplifier input in udio mplifiers is there to provide the feedbck which reduces the mplifier s distortion when the mplifier is driven to its limits. Some mplifiers such s guitr mplifiers purposely introduce distortion into the sound, so open loop mplifiers re used in these cses, but closed loop mplifiers re usully employed in high fidelity pplictions. If the noise source, V 1, is set to zero in Eqution 22, then the mplifier input noise represented by V 0 is multiplied by the closed loop gin 1/. There is method to further reduce the effects of V 0 by using frequency discrimintion methods. If V 0 is exmined s function of frequency, it will be noticed tht the noise is mde up of mny different frequency components, see Figure 10. IDEAL FILTER SIGNAL NOISE 0 100Hz 10KHz NOISE REMOVED FIGURE 10. INSERTING AN IDEAL FILTEN THE TRANSFER FUNCTION REDUCES NOISE The signl of interest hs finite bndwidth, nd if the noise bndwidth is lrger thn the signl bndwidth, the noise cn be reduced by mking the loop gin function of frequency. Assuming tht the noise bndwidth is 10KHz nd tht the signl bndwidth is 100Hz, the noise beyond 100Hz cn be reduced to minimum if 1/ is reduced to zero beyond 100Hz. One method vilble to ccomplish this bndwidth reduction is through the idel filter inserted in the closed loop, s shown in Figure 10. This filter cn be pproximted with pssive components. F The input nd output impednce of the closed loop circuit cn be controlled by the mount of feedbck nd by the circuit configurtion [4 ]. Through the use of feedbck it is possible for the sme mplifier IC to pper to hve n output impednce pproching zero or pproching infinity, depending on the circuit configurtion employed. Another interesting spect of feedbck systems is tht if function is put in the feedbck loop, in mnner similr to the feedbck fctor,, the inverse function will pper t the output. Grphicl Representtion of the Feedbck Eqution The mthemticl mnipultions required to nlyze feedbck circuit re complicted becuse they involve multipliction nd division; H. W. Bode [5] developed technique clled Bode plot which simplifies the nlysis through the use of grphicl techniques. The Bode equtions re log equtions which tke the form of 20LOG (F(t)) = 20LOG ( F(t) ) + phse ngle. Since these re log equtions, the terms which were multiplied nd divided cn be now dded nd subtrcted; thus, they cn esily be solved grphiclly s will be shown. The trnsfer function for the integrtor shown in Figure 11 is given in Eqution = 1 + RCs Where s = jnd j = (1) R FIGURE 11. INTEGRATOR CIRCUIT (EQ. 23) The mgnitude of the trnsfer function is given by the eqution / = 1 /(1+(RC)2). The pproximte mgnitude or / =1 when = 0.1/RC, / = when =1/ RC nd / = 0.1 when = 10 / RC. These vlues re plotted in Figure 12 using stright line pproximtions. PHASE SHIFT 20LOG( / ) = 0.1/RC DEGREES 45 DEGREES = 1/RC C = 10/RC 2/DECADE 90 DEGREES FIGURE 12. BODE PLOT OF INTEGRATING CIRCUIT TRANSFER FUNCTION The downwrd slope of the mplitude curve in Figure 12 is AN9415 Rev Pge 4 of 13

5 2/decde, nd the point t which the slope chnges, t = 1/RC, is termed the brekpoint. Reding the curve, it cn be seen tht gin initilly is one,, t very low frequencies, flling off to 0.707, 3, t the brek frequency nd decreses t rte of 2/decde for higher frequencies. The phse shift for the integrtor is given in Eqution 24 nd plotted in Figure 12. Notice tht the phse shift is 45 degrees t the brekpoint where = 1/RC. = tngent 1 (1 / RC) (EQ. 24) When the brekpoint occurs in the denomintor, its slope is negtive nd is clled pole. Conversely, when the brekpoint occurs in the numertor, its slope is positive nd it is clled zero. The bnd reject circuit shown in Figure 13 hs two poles, two zeros nd DC gin. Ech pole nd zero is plotted seprtely in Figure 14. The DC gin component is plotted s stright line t 6 becuse it is frequency independent. The two zeros in the numertor both occur t = 1/RC; thus they re plotted on top of ech other, nd this results in positive sloped line rising t 4/decde. The two poles in the denomintor occur t = 0.44/RC nd = 4.56/RC, nd they re ech plotted with negtive slope of 2/decde. Where s = j C R R FIGURE 13. BAND REJECT FILTER CIRCUIT 1+ RCs1+ RCs = 21 + RCs/ RCs/ = 0.44/RC = 1/RC (EQ. 25) FIGURE 14. BODE PLOT OF THE INDIVIDUAL COMPONENTS OF THE BAND REJECT FILTER Ech of the seprte Bode plots shown in Figure 14 re combined into one composite plot in Figure 15. The phse plots re treted much like the mplitude plots becuse the seprte phse responses from the poles nd zeros cn be combined into one plot such s is shown in Figure 15. Now the complete mplitude or phse response of the circuit cn be observed by looking t Figure 15. Although the phse shift t pole is 45 degrees, the plot indictes 5 degrees t = 0.44/RC becuse the double zero locted t = 1/RC hs lredy ccumulted C +4/DECADE = 4.56/RC 2/DECADE R LOG 2/DECADE significnt positive phse shift t the pole frequency. The nonlinerity of the phse plot, result of the tngent function, mkes it hrd to pproximte ccurtely when severl poles nd zeros congregte in the sme vicinity. PHASE SHIFT FIGURE 15. COMPOSITE BODE PLOT FOR THE BAND REJECT FILTER Spcing the poles nd zeros by decde enbles n ccurte phse plot using pproximte methods, but the circuit performnce criteri usully will not llow this luxury. The mplitude plot lso becomes smered by the close proximity of the poles nd zeros, but the exct vlues re not usully plotted becuse the pproximte vlues usully suffice for nlysis [6]. The demnd for the phse ccurcy stems from the oscilltion or stbility criteri which is dependent on phse. Applying logrithms to the system equtions will enble quick nd rther complete nlysis. Eqution 4 is repeted in Eqution 26 in log form; i.e., both sides of the eqution hve been operted on by the function 20LOG 10 (F(t)). 20LOG( / ) = 20LOG(A) 20LOG(1 + A) (EQ. 26) As would be expected from the preceding nlysis, the shpe of the plot will be determined by the brekpoints, if ny, contined in A or.the mgnitude portion of the closed loop system eqution is plotted in Figure 16 for the cse where A nd re not function of frequency. Notice tht both plots re flt lines, nd there is no phse plot. Obviously this cse is trivil nd of no interest to the circuit designer becuse it does not represent the rel world since the gin of ll mplifiers is function of frequency [7]. AMPLITUDE AMPLITUDE DEGREES +12 DEGREES DEGREES 20LOG(A) 20LOG( / ) = 0.44/RC = 1/RC 20LOG(1 + A) = 4.56/RC FIGURE 16. PLOT OF EQUATION 4 WHEN A AND ARE NOT FREQUENCY DEPENDENT Most high gin mplifiers such s opertionl mplifiers hve multiple poles, two per trnsistor, with the mplifier hving s mny s 20 trnsistors leding to potentil of 40 or more poles. Normlly only few poles re importnt becuse the other poles occur t very high frequencies where the gin is less thn one so tht they AN9415 Rev Pge 5 of 13

6 cn not cuse oscilltion. In mny mplifiers the mnufcturer compenstes the mplifier with single pole usully clled dominnt pole (f AMP ), nd the mplifier s performnce cn be pproximted by the trnsfer function A = / (1 + j (f / f AMP )). Eqution 4 is plotted in Figure 17 with the ssumption tht A is frequency dependent nd is resistive or frequency independent. 20LOG(A) 20LOG( / ) 20LOG(1 + A) f = f AMP f 3 FIGURE 17. PLOT OF EQUATION 4 WHEN A = / (1 + j (f /f AMP )) AND IS FREQUENCY INDEPENDENT The closed loop gin grphicl pproximtion is constnt until its projection intersects the mplifier gin t point X. The ctul closed loop gin strts rolling off prior to point X, nd it is down 3 t point X. If 20LOG( / ) 20LOG(A) = 3 then 20LOG(1 + A) = 3, nd if the mgnitude of (1 + A) is considered, then the squre root of (1 + (A) 2 ) = resulting in A = 1. In other words, A = 1/ t the intersection of the two curves. There is method [8] of relting the phse shift, nd thus the stbility, to the slope of the curves t the intersect point, but this method will not be covered here in fvor of the Bode A method. The dominnt pole cuses the open loop gin to hve brekpoint t the frequency f AMP. The internlly compensted op mp cts like dominnt pole chrcteristic so its AC prmeters cn be determined by referring to the OpenLoop Frequency Response curve contined in the dt sheet. Although the curve is clled OpenLoop Frequency Response, it relly is the direct gin (A). Notice tht the CA158 op mp s shown in the Intersil Corportion ctlog [9] hs brekpoint which occurs t f AMP = 5Hz., nd the DC gin is 11. If the trnsfer function shown in Figure 17 ws for the CA158 then the direct gin would be A = /(1 + j (f/ f AMP )), or A = 316,227 /(1 + j (f/ 5)). Consider for moment the difficulty nd hence the probble error ssocited with mesuring the DC gin nd the brek point. A populr method of mesuring the op mp gin nd phse is to configure the op mp in the inverting mode nd then mesure the error voltge; i.e., the voltge from the inverting input to ground. Then Eqution 3, E = / A, is employed to clculte the op mp gin from the mesured error. Assume tht the op mp is configured in gin of 100; then the direct gin is A = 100 / 101 times the op mp gin so smll offset must be ccounted for becuse the mesurement is not direct mesurement in the inverting circuit configurtion. If the output voltge,, is kept smll to gurntee smll signl ccurcy, sy one volt, then for the CA158, V ERROR = 1/316,217 = 3.16V. Mesuring this smll voltge especilly considering tht noise my be present is formidble tsk so designers must ssume tht there my be considerble tolernce ssocited with these mesurements. The numbers given in this pper re for explntion purposes; professionl test engineers will often configure the op mp with gin of A = 10,000 nd then be mesuring errors in the nnovolt rnge. These mesurements require considerble skill, nd even then there my be X 24 difference between the minimum specifiction point nd the typicl vlue such s in the HA5177 dt sheet. GAIN () K 10K 100K 1M 10M 100M FIGURE 18. OPEN LOOP FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF THE HA2842C Figure 18 is plot of the gin phse reltionship for high frequency op mp, the HA2842C. The DC gin is 9, nd since the phse shift reches 45 degrees t 1200Hz the first pole must occur t pproximtely 1200Hz. This is high frequency op mp so the internl compenstion cpcitor hs been reduced significntly to increse the bndwidth vilble to the designer, nd it is pprent tht second pole exists becuse the phse shift pproches 135 degrees t 70MHz. Looking closely t the point where the gin crosses the xis, nd then following tht constnt frequency line, 120MHz, down to the phse curve indictes tht the phse shift is bout 165 degrees. This op mp is mrginlly stble, nd the op mp is susceptible to stbility problems unless externl compenstion techniques re employed. The HA2842C cn be modeled with DC gin of 31,623, the first brek point t 1200Hz nd the second brekpoint t 145MHz. The eqution for the HA2842C is then A = 31,623 / (1 + j (f / 1200))(1 + j (f / 145E6)). Stbility s Determined from Loop Plots A = 1 = 1 /180 (EQ. 27) Eqution 8 hs been repeted bove s Eqution 27. If the mgnitude of the gin is greter thn one in Eqution 27, the eqution will be stisfied becuse the nonliner effects of the ctive devices s they enter sturtion will reduce the gin to one. This is demonstrted in oscilltor design where the designer must design for worse cse gin of t lest one, so the circuit will oscillte under ll conditions, nd the nominl gin usully is much greter thn one. The oscilltor designers re cught in trp, for if they design for worse cse low gin greter thn one, then the worse cse high gin will be much greter thn one. In the low gin cse, the circuit brely oscilltes, but the sinewve is very pure. In the high gin cse, the circuit lwys oscilltes, but there is significnt distortion in the sinewve. Just s the oscilltor designer must mke compromises for the ske of instbility, so, the nlog designer mke compromises for the ske of stbility. In the cse of mplifier design, the phse shift must never become 180 degrees, t gin greter thn one, or oscilltion will occur. The compromise PHASE (DEGREES) AN9415 Rev Pge 6 of 13

7 occurs when the mplifier designer trdes off gin nd / or bndwidth for positive phse shift becuse the methods which produce sfe phse shift tend to reduce gin or bndwidth, s will be shown lter. In mny cses oscilltion is not the limiting fctor becuse s the phse shift gets much greter thn 135 degrees, the mplifier output will hve incresing overshoot nd ringing. Plotting the loop gin gives gret insight into both the stbility nd closed loop performnce; stbility will be discussed in this section nd closed loop performnce predictions from open loop plots will be discussed in the next section. K A = 1+ R 1 C 1 s1+ R 2 C 2 s where K = DC gin. 20LOG(K) AMPLITUDE (A) PHASE (A) /R 1 C 1 20LOG(A) 1/R 2 C 2 (EQ. 28) LOG (f) GM FIGURE 19. LOOP PHASE AND GAIN PLOT OF EQUATION 27 Figure 19 is used to help define the industry stndrd terms, phse mrgin, M, nd gin mrgin, GM. Phse mrgin is mesure of reltive stbility, nd it is defined s the mount of phse shift between the point where the loop gin equls nd 180 degrees. Eqution 29 defines the phse mrgin mthemticlly. M = 180 tngent 1 (A) (EQ. 29) Gin mrgin is defined s the gin t the point where the phse equls 180 degrees. Gin mrgin is lwys negtive (), or less thn one, in stble system, nd it does not contin much informtion bout stbility or closed loop performnce. The phse mrgin shown in Figure 19 is pproximtely 16 degrees; ttempting to mesure the phse mrgin in Figure 19 points out how importnt it is to plot phse mrgin ccurtely. This circuit will be stble since the phse mrgin is positive; the phse shift cnnot ever rech the 180 degrees required for oscilltion if the circuit is to remin stble. Becuse the phse mrgin is very smll, the overshoot will be very lrge, nd the output will exhibit dmped oscilltion commonly known s ringing. If the gin, K, were incresed in the loop trnsfer function until it crossed the xis t 180 degrees phse shift, then the circuit would oscillte; thus, there is definite limit on the loop gin. The loop trnsfer function, shown s Figure 19, is repeted in Figure 20 with the gin incresed by fctor of C. Notice tht indeed the 180 degree phse crossover point occurs prior to the crossover point, so the phse mrgin is negtive nd the circuit will oscillte. Conversely, the trnsfer function shown in Figure 20 does not even hve enough gin t the 180 degree point to ensure oscilltion under production tolernces, so the circuit is good for nothing in its present condition. M 20LOG(K + C) 20LOG(K) AMPLITUDE (A) PHASE (A) /R 1 C 1 LOG (f) 1/R 2 C M = 0 FIGURE 20. LOOP PHASE AND GAIN PLOT OF EQUATION 27 WITH ADDED GAIN C Extremely high gin systems hve very low errors, but they re limited in the bndwidth they cn obtin without oscillting, so designers resort to other techniques such s nonliner trnsfer functions. An exmple of high gin, ccurte system which employs nonliner techniques to chieve stbility, is gyro stbiliztion pltform which would go into limit cycle if the gin ws not reduced upon strtup. If the second brekpoint, 1 / R 2 C 2, were moved closer to the first brekpoint, then the circuit would ccumulte phse shift from the brekpoint erlier nd it my become unstble. Figure 19 is repeted s Figure 21, where the second brekpoint hs been moved closer to the first brekpoint. Notice tht the 45 degree phse point is not ffected, the 135 degree phse point hs moved in towrds the 45 degree phse point, nd tht the 180 degree phse point occurs prior to the crossover point. Generlly, moving the two poles closer together cn cuse instbility. 20LOG(K) AMPLITUDE (A) 45 PHASE (A) 135 1/R 1 C 1 1/R 2 C 2 20LOG(A) LOG (f) 180 M = 0 FIGURE 21. LOOP PHASE AND GAIN PLOT OF EQUATION 27 WITH 1/R 2 C 2 CLOSER TO 1/R 1 C 1 The single pole system cnnot ccumulte more thn 90 degrees of phse shift so it cnnot become unstble; thus single pole systems will not be discussed here. This does not men tht n internlly compensted op mp, which cts like dominnt pole, cnnot become unstble becuse ll op mps hve more thn one pole. The proof of this is the dt sheet, consider the HA2500 [10] which is internlly compensted for unity gin, where the Open Loop Frequency nd Phse Response curve AN9415 Rev Pge 7 of 13

8 shows phse shifts beyond 90 degrees. Lots of good dt cn be gthered from these curves; i.e., the phse mrgin for the HA2500 is pproximtely 30 degrees so there will be some overshoot, nd there is second pole t bout 3MHz. There is no such thing s n unconditionlly stble op mp unless it lies on the tble with power disconnected, becuse ll op mps re multiple pole devices especilly when stry cpcitnces re considered. This conclusion my led someone to wonder where to drw the line when doing n nlysis, nd most engineers drw the line t two poles becuse the mthemtics re esy to hndle. If required, they obtin solution for lrger systems through the use of superposition, but usully the poles re seprted fr enough for some of them to be ignored or the circuit is modified to chieve the seprtion. The next section will delve into the second order stbility nlysis more deeply. Poles nd zeros lwys occur in pirs, lthough sometimes either the pole or zero my be t the origin or infinity, thus they will not lwys pper in the trnsfer function. Whenever pole is referred to, its corresponding zero is lso considered. Predicting Stbility nd Performnce from Closed Loop Plots The closed loop AC performnce of feedbck circuit is dependent on the order of the denomintor eqution which is often considered equivlent to the number of poles contined in the circuit. If the circuit hs no poles then its AC performnce does not vry with frequency. If the circuit hs one pole then the closed loop AC performnce is rther esy to describe; the gin on Bode plot will be 20LOG(K) nd the mplitude response will strt flling off t the brekpoint with 2/decde slope. If the circuit hs two or more poles the closed loop AC response is much more complicted, the circuit cn overshoot, then ring nd finlly oscillte. The second order circuit, which contins two poles, is so populr tht it is described extensively in the literture [11], nd it is the one tht will be dwelled on here. Higher order circuits cn usully be reduced to second order for closed loop performnce nlysis, so this nlysis will be restricted to stbility nd closed loop performnce for second order circuits. Eqution 7 is written here s Eqution 30 with second order loop trnsfer function substituted for A. Eqution 31 is obtined from Eqution 30 through lgebric mnipultion. K 1 + As = 1 + = s s 2 where = RC s K + s + = (EQ. 30) (EQ. 31) Eqution 32 is the stndrd second order control eqution, nd it is compred to Eqution 31 to obtin Eqution 33 nd Eqution 34 which define the dmping rtio,, nd undmped nturl frequency, N. s N s + N = 0 = 2f K N = N = 1 2 (EQ. 32) (EQ. 33) (EQ. 34) The frequency where the mgnitude of the loop trnsfer function, A, is equl to one is defined s the crossover frequency, C ; this is expressed in Eqution 35 with C substituted for. Then Eqution 35 is lgebriclly mnipulted to obtin Eqution 36 from which the phse functions shown in Eqution 37 nd Eqution 38 re obtined. K = C C 2 (EQ. 35) C 4 + 2N 2 C 2 N 4 = 0 (EQ. 36) M TAN 1 C = 2 1 C 1 2 M = TAN 1 2 N / C (EQ. 37) (EQ. 38) Considering the trnsfer function shown in Figure 22, if the crossover frequency, = C, occurs well fter the brek frequency, 1 / 2, then Eqution 39 cn be simplified to Eqution 40. Solving Eqution 40 for C yields Eqution LOG(A) = 20LOG(K) 20LOG( ) 1/2 20LOG( ) 1/2 (EQ. 39) 20LOG(A) = 20LOG(K) 20LOG( 1 ) 20LOG( 2 ) for» 1/ 2 (EQ. 40) C = DAMPING RATIO, K 1 N for» PERCENT MAXIMUM OVERSHOOT PHASE MARGIN, M (EQ. 41) FIGURE 22. PHASE MARGIN AND PERCENT OVERSHOOT AS A FUNCTION OF DAMPING RATIO Figure 22 is plot of Eqution 38; now the phse mrgin is expressed in terms of known quntities so it cn be clculted from knowledge the pole loctions. The estimtion procedure is to determine the pole loctions from knowing the op mp pole loctions nd from the externl circuitry. Once the pole loctions nd the gin re known or estimted the phse mrgin, dmping rtio nd cutoff frequency cn be clculted. Then using Figure 22 yields the percent overshoot. The pole loctions nd gin cn be vried to obtin different solutions to the problem. After ll of this dt is stisfctory, then the loop trnsfer function should be plotted to determine stbility. While only the poles were used in the estimtion procedure, both the poles nd zeros must be used to plot the open trnsfer function. After severl itertions workble solution should pop out AN9415 Rev Pge 8 of 13

9 if one exists. Remember tht this procedure is n pproximtion, thus it must lwys be verified in the lbortory. Schemes All op mps re compensted; some re compensted with internl components thus sving the designer time nd money. Mny op mps re not compensted internlly becuse leving out the compenstion gives the designer n extr degree of freedom, nd these op mps must hve some kind of externl compenstion or they will oscillte. The internlly compensted op mps re usully compensted with method clled dominnt pole or lg compenstion severl forms of which re shown in Figure 23. R C C pole compenstion is only used inside the op mp, when the closed loop bndwidth requirements re not gret, or if noise reduction is desired. A simpler method of compensting the op mp is with gin compenstion. Consider Eqution 14 which is repeted here s Eqution 42; this eqution is for the loop gin nd it is vlid for both inverting nd noninverting op mps. If the closed loop inverting gin is incresed to 9, then Eqution 42 becomes A/10 decrese of 2 in the DC intercept. Plotting these results in Figure 25 revels tht the circuit hs become stble without much of bndwidth reduction. V O Z = 1 = A V I Z 1 + Z 2 2 (EQ. 42) ORIGINAL OP AMP CURVE 20LOG(A) COMPENSATED OP AMP CURVE C C R C C C 1/ 1 1/ 2 FIGURE 25. GAIN COMPENSATION FIGURE 23. EXAMPLES OF DOMINANT POLE COMPENSATION Dominnt pole compenstion circuits tend to be ssocited with the op mp, nd they usully re not prt of the feedbck circuit. The loop trnsfer function for n op mp is shown in Figure 24 in solid lines. There re two poles ccumulting phse shift prior to the crossover point; thus this circuit my very well be unstble. The first pole, 1/ 1, is the low frequency brek point of the op mp, nd the second pole, 1/ 2, is the high frequency brek point. Since these pole loctions re inherent in the op mp design, the circuit designer must live with them, but the effects of these poles cn be modified with externl feedbck components. Locting the dominnt pole, 1/ DP, so tht the crossover point coincides with the first op mp pole, 1, yields phse mrgin of 45 degrees. By locting the dominnt pole zero crossing t 1/ 1 the circuit scrifices significnt bndwidth which cn be regined by moving the pole further out. The exct pole plcement will be function of the circuit specifictions such s the llowed overshoot or the bndwidth required. 20LOG(A) 1/ DP 1/ 1 1/ 2 FIGURE 24. DOMINANT POLE COMPENSATION PLOT Becuse of the loop gin loss nd the bndwidth loss dominnt The occsion lwys rises where the closed loop gin must be one or less, thereby precluding the use of gin compenstion; thus the designer must resort to other techniques to chieve the circuit performnce. An lternte method of compenstion is clled led compenstion, nd it consists of putting zero in the loop trnsfer function to cncel out one of the poles. The best plce to locte the zero is on top of the second pole, since this cncels the negtive phse shift cused by the second pole. The schemtic of circuit which employs led compenstion is shown in Figure 26, nd Eqution 43 is for the loop trnsfer function. + FIGURE 26. LEAD COMPENSATION The zero in Eqution 43 occurs before the pole, so it cn be used to cncel out the pole t 1/ 2 by plcing the zero on top of the pole. Now the 135 degree phse shift point hs moved out to 1/R F Cs yielding better phse mrgin. There re lwys compromises to be mde when designing feedbck circuit, nd the one mde here is to dd externl components. If the op mp hs dditionl poles close to 1/ 2, nd mny op mps do, then the pole plcement is criticl. Some op mps hve so mny poles in the re of 1/ 2 tht this method of compenstion cnnot be used. R F Cs + 1 A = + R F R F Cs + 1 (EQ. 43) Unless specified otherwise, the mplifier gin () will be R F C AN9415 Rev Pge 9 of 13

10 ssumed to hve the form = K / (1 + 1 s)(1 + 2 s). 20LOG(K /( + R F )) Referring to Figure 29, it cn be seen tht the ledlg compensted circuit crosses t lower frequency thn the uncompensted circuit, thus the compenstion hs mde the circuit more stble. Also, the trnsfer function of the compenstion hs been shown in Figure 29 for clrity. There is n dditionl dvntge to ledlg compenstion in tht it yields higher gin t high frequencies. The closed loop gin plots, Figure 30, show tht the zero precedes the pole; the poles nd zeros interchnge when the plot chnges from the loop gin to the closed loop gin. Also, the high frequency gin is emphsized with ledlg compenstion. The high frequency emph 20LOG(A) 1/ 1 1/ 2 1/R F Cs ORIGINAL TRANSFER FUNCTION 1/R F Cs FIGURE 27. LEAD COMPENSATION PLOT MODIFIED TRANSFER FUNCTION Sometimes good look t the problem revels potentil solution, so the cse of stry input cpcitnce will be investigted. An inverting mplifier with stry input cpcitnce, C I, is shown in Figure 28. Looking t Eqution 44 for the open loop trnsfer function, it is obvious tht the stry cpcitnce dds pole to the trnsfer function, nd if the dded pole is close to 1/ 2 the circuit will become unstble. The cpcitor, C F shown in dotted lines, is dded to the circuit to yield the trnsfer function shown in Eqution 45. Inspection of Eqution 45 revels tht if C I = R F C F, then the poles nd zeros in the trnsfer function will cncel ech other, nd the trnsfer function will pper to be independent of frequency. This type of compenstion is nmed fter the sme ide used in the compensted ttenutor, which is n old instrument design trick. Which just proves tht little in circuit design is relly new. + C F in circuit: C I s + 1 A = R F C I s R F C F s + 1 (EQ. 45) There re times when n extr degree of freedom is required nd the ledlg, sometimes clled the feedforwrd, form of compenstion yields this freedom. This method of compenstion puts pole nd zero in the loop trnsfer function. If the pole nd zero loctions must be independent of ech other, then seprte compenstion networks need to be used. An exmple of this would be to use lg circuit similr to tht shown in Figure 24, nd led circuit similr to tht shown in Figure 26. The led nd lg would then be independent in the exmple so they could be plced conveniently for compenstion purposes. The circuit shown in Figure 29 hs both pole nd zero, but their plcement is not independent. RCs + 1 A = + R F R + R F R+ R F Cs + 1 R F + C 20LOG( /(R F + )) R + R F 20LOG(A) BEFORE COMPENSATION (EQ. 46) C I C F AMPLITUDE 20LOG(A) AFTER COMPENSATION ORIGINAL TRANSFER FUNCTION 20LOG(A) PHASE (A) FIGURE 28. COMPENSATED ATTENUATOR CIRCUIT SCHEMATIC, GAIN PLOT AND PHASE PLOT No C F : ORIGINAL TRANSFER FUNCTION 1 A = + R F 1 + R F Cs 1/ 1 1/ 2 1/ R F Cs MODIFIED TRANSFER FUNCTION MODIFIED TRANSFER FUNCTION (EQ. 44) 1/ 1/(RC) 1/ 1 1/ 2 COMPENSATION NETWORK (R +R F R+R F ) Cs (R F + ) FIGURE 29. LEADLAG COMPENSATION SCHEMATIC AND A AMPLITUDE PLOT AN9415 Rev Pge 10 of 13

11 sis my be desirble when high overll gin is needed, but some unwnted effects, such s DC offset, must be minimized. The ledlg method of compenstion usully requires the precise plcement of the poles nd zeros so detiled nd ccurte [12] phse plot is generlly constructed for this cse. 20LOG(A) 20LOG(R F / ) 1/(R+ )C DIRECT GAIN CLOSED LOOP COMPENSATED CLOSED LOOP UNCOMPENSATED FIGURE 30. LEADLAG CLOSED LOOP GAIN PLOTS FOR COM PENSATED AND UNCOMPENSATED CIRCUITS Comprison of Results Dominnt pole compenstion is the esiest method of compenstion to implement within n IC, but it rolls off the closed loop gin so quickly tht it is seldom used except in op mp design. The circuit resulting from dominnt pole design is very well behved becuse the phse mrgin is usully bout 45 degrees, but the frequency response is very poor. If the trnsfer function for the HA2842C shown in Figure 18 is compensted by dominnt pole compenstion, the pole would be plced t 1200Hz; the loop gin when moving to lower frequency would then rise t rte of 2/decde until it hit the 9 point t 0.06Hz. This is n effective bndwidth reduction of 4.5 decdes, from 120MHz to 1200Hz, so this method is only used when no other type of compenstion is vilble, noise reduction is more importnt thn bndwidth or bndwidth is not importnt. Gin compenstion is lwys the preferred method of compenstion if the resulting higher closed loop gin meets the performnce criteri, but mny times the design specifictions cll for buffer or n inverter both with gin of one, which precludes gin compenstion. Gin compenstion does not require ny dditionl externl components beyond the gin setting resistors, it preserves the op mp bndwidth nd it is esy to implement. In single pole system, incresing gin will reduce the bndwidth by the sme fctor. Led compenstion offers n AC compenstion which cn function for ny DC gin, nd it is hs much higher frequency response thn dominnt pole compenstion. One deficiency with led compenstion is tht the DC gin, the zero nd the pole re ll tied together tightly. For exmple if the HA2842C shown in Figure 18 is led compensted for closed loop gin of 1 then = R F. This mens tht the pole nd zero re only seprted by n octve so the compenstion must be done in n re of the loop gin plot which is very close to. Observing Figure 18, it cn be seen tht the best plce tht led compenstion cn improve stbility significntly is t the second pole where the phse equls 135 degrees phse shift nd the frequency is 75MHz. Plcing the zero t 75MHz yields phse mrgin of bout 60 degrees resulting nice stble circuit with 10% overshoot per Figure 22. The closed loop response eqution is /V F = R / 1 / (R F Cs + 1), nd the closed loop gin is 1 until it reches the frequency f =1/2R F C, 150MHz, where it is down by 3. Led compenstion rolls off the closed loop frequency response drmticlly. AN9415 Rev Pge 11 of 13

12 The compensted ttenutor pproch works well for negting the effects of n input cpcitnce becuse both the open loop nd closed loop trnsfer functions hve flt frequency response. Also, the compenstion required is very smll. When the output resistnce of n op mp gets very high, the stry cpcitnce seen cross the resistor cts like led circuit nd rolls off the high frequency gin. Adding n input cpcitor, the reverse of ttenutor compenstion, serves to restore the high frequency performnce. Both digitltonlog converters nd opticl receiving diodes hve lrge ssocited cpcitnces, so when they re put into the input circuit of n op mp, often in n ItoV converter configurtion, the circuit oscilltes. The compensted ttenutor tmes these circuits, but bewre, the compenstion must consider the worst cse especilly for current DACs which hve wide rnge of output cpcitnce. The ledlg compenstion scheme is very similr to the led compenstion scheme but it hs two dvntges. First, setting the DC gin does not fix the pole zero seprtion, so for low gins the pole nd zero could be seprted by more thn n octve. Second, zero shows up in the closed loop trnsfer function where it increses the gin t high frequencies. The combintion of these two dvntges re gret enough to outweigh the cost of the extr components dded to the circuit. The compenstion techniques demonstrted here serve s good foundtion for feedbck circuit design, but like ll foundtions it is ment to be built on [13]. There re other methods of treting compenstion such s closed loop stbility plots, Nichols chrts, root locus plots nd Nyquist nlysis. Ech technique offers some dvntges nd disdvntges; the Bode method simply is the uthor s personl choice so the other techniques deserve investigtion. References [1] Areocentric, Sol, Feedbck Amplifier Principles, Mcmilln Publishing Compny, [2] Del Toro, Vincent nd Prker, Sydney, Principles of Control Systems Engineering, McGrwHill Book Compny, [3] Del Toro, Vincent nd Prker, Sydney, Principles of Control Systems Engineering, McGrwHill Book Compny, [4] DiStefno, Joseph, Stubberud, Allen nd Willims, Ivn, Theory nd Problems of Feedbck nd Control Systems, Schum s Outline Series, McGrwHill Book Compny, [5] Bode H. W., Network Anlysis nd Feedbck Amplifier Design, D. Vn Nostrnd, Inc., [6] D Azzo, John nd Houpis, Constntine, Feedbck Control System Anlysis nd Synthesis, McGrwHill Book Compny, [7] Frederiksen, Thoms, Intuitive Opertionl Amplifiers, McGrwHill Book Compny, [8] Bower, J. L. nd Schultheis, P. M., Introduction to the Design of Servomechnisms, Wiley, [9] Intersil Corportion, Liner nd Telecom ICS for Anlog Signl Processing Applictions, [10] Sme s bove. [11] Del Toro, Vincent nd Prker Sydney, Principles of Control Systems Engineering, McGrwHill Book Compny, [12] Kuo, Benjmin, Automtic Control Systems, PrenticeHll, Inc., [13] Bell, Ken, Converstions bout feedbck circuits while t Chrles Strk Drper Lbs, AN9415 Rev Pge 12 of 13

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