Savanna Conservation Project, Swaziland. Year-end report, 2013

Transcription

1 Savanna Conservation Project, Swaziland Year-end report, 2013 Tanja Kaselowski Savanna Conservation Coordinator

2 1. INTRODUCTION The savanna conservation research rationale is based on the fact that available and suitable habitats for wildlife communities in Swaziland are decreasing with an increase in habitat degradation. The few remaining natural areas of which Mbuluzi Game Reserve and Mlawula Nature Reserve (where most of our studies are conducted) form part of play a vital role in the long-term conservation of these ecosystems. Wildlife communities in these reserves, as in many other ecosystems, are primarily driven by complex interactions between living and non-living components, such as the relationship between vegetation growth, rainfall, fire and grazing. It is therefore important to understand how these patterns and processes operate over an extended period of time in order to provide the most accurate ecological information. Conservation management decisions are as good as the information on which they are based (McGwynne and Adams 2004). Long-term monitoring provides environmental managers with invaluable baseline data from which unanticipated fluctuations can be distinguished from natural variability and amelioration efforts can be implemented in an active, adaptive manner. This report summarizes activities of the AOA Research Camp and ecological studies conducted in line with the abovementioned rationale. Non-research related topics are lastly summarized. 2. RESEARCH CAMP ACTIVITIES Research Camp occupancy Construction to the new Savanna Research Camp, situated in Mbuluzi Game Reserve (NE Swaziland), finished at the end of May 2013 after which a busy season commenced. Table 1 and Table 2 summarize the camp activity and occupancy. Over this period, the camp accommodated students from five different universities which include the University of Florida (Florida, USA), Tarleton State University (Texas, USA), Auburn University (Alabama, USA), Trinity University (Ireland) and University of Swaziland. Table 1:Number of bed nights (June December 2013; camp construction completed end of May 2013). MONTH (2013) CAMP OCCUPANCY (# of bed nights) April - May - June 519 July 234 August 270 September 114 October 109 November 166 December 219 Page 2

3 Table 2: A summary of the camp activity from June 2013 and onwards. CAMP ACTIVITY RESEARCH INTEREST MONTH Study abroad groups University of Florida (pax 14) Biodiversity Jun'13 Tarleton State University (pax 18) Biodiversity Jun'13 Auburn University (pax 13) Biodiversity, bats Aug'13 Independent Researchers Chelsea Taylor (Tarleton State University) Crested Guineafowl Sept '13 - Jan'14 Jacob Owen (Tarleton State University) Reptiles, amphibians Dec'13-Feb'14 Sean Clawson (Tarleton State University) Bats Dec'13;May'14~ Kate Howard (Tarleton State University) Black shoulder kites Dec'13;May'14~ Karen Bailey (University of Florida) Rodents Aug-Dec'13; Apr'14~ Julie Shapiro (University of Florida) Bats Dec'13-Apr'14~ Rich Stanton (University of Florida) Birds Dec'13 Jose Soto (University of Florida) Camera trap footage Dec'13 Adam Kane (Trinity University) White-backed vultures Jun'13~ University of Swaziland Bats, rodents, vegetation Jun'13~ AOA Volunteers Tony Benton n/a 09 Oct - 03 Nov'13 Alacia and Gavin Emmons n/a 11 Nov - 05 Dec'13 Jessica Anderberg and Linnea Knuttson n/a Dec'13 ~ ongoing 3. RESEARCH PROJECTS 3.1 Biodiversity surveys Biodiversity (biological diversity) basically refers to the level of diversity among elements of an ecosystem. Generally, the more diverse an ecosystem/habitat, the more ecologically healthier it is. In order to determine this status, ecological indicators are monitored over an extended period of time. Within a setting of thousands of species and complex processes, ecological indicators are those few species (e.g. certain plants and animals) that illustrate patterns and processes within the entire ecosystem (story tellers of nature). For example, under certain conditions, e.g. degraded ecosystem, some indicators would flourish whereas the more specialized indicator species would be non-existent; vice versa during optimal conditions. Thus, in order to apply the best conservation management strategy, one would have to establish the status of an ecosystem by assessing and monitoring the ecological indicators. We strive to assess and monitor the ecological indicators of Mbuluzi Game Reserve (MGR), Mlawula Nature Reserve as well as Hlane Royal National Park (latest edition to our research project) over a long-term period in order to capture change and possible cause-effect relationships and so provide invaluable data for its conservation. Page 3

4 Biodiversity surveys take place on our established research grids (6 grids, each [500x500m] sub-divided into 9 plots) during winter and summer each year where the following ecological indicators are focused on: Vegetation surveys Vegetation surveys form the foundation of this research as it provides habitat, food and shelter for all the other indicators. Rodent community composition Rodents are excellent indicators as they respond rapidly to changes in their habitat. Rodent surveys consist of placing 180 Sherman traps per grid for four nights, checking the traps every morning and record the number of rodents captured, species as well as taking morphological measurements. Rodents are then ear-tagged and released. Camera trap footage Footage from trip camera traps are used to assess the community composition and abundance of animals in a certain area and time of day. Cameras (2 per plot) are rigged at each of the 9 plots for five nights after which the footage is processed. Bird community composition Birds are excellent indicators of the condition of a habitat. Bird surveys consist of assessing each plot for 10minutes in four consecutive mornings (30min before sunrise to 4hours after sunrise). The number and species of birds seen or heard within and beyond 50meters are recorded Collaboration with the Organization of Tropical Studies (OTS) One of our latest initiatives include collaborating with the Organization of Tropical Studies (OTS), situated in the Kruger National Park (Lower Sabie). OTS conducts similar biodiversity surveys as the Savanna Research Unit in the north-eastern corner of Swaziland. The two areas comprise similar climate, geology and vegetation thus making them comparable with one another. The only major difference is that we, here in Swaziland, lack mega-herbivores (elephant, rhino and buffalo with the exception of Hlane Royal National Park). The general aim of this collaboration is to establish the difference ecological indicators and possible causal effects Collaboration with Hlane Royal National Park, Swaziland Our most recent collaboration is with Hlane Royal National Park in which biodiversity surveys will also be conducted on an annual basis. Surveys will start in February Page 4

5 3.1.3 Preliminary results from our biodiversity surveys: Vegetation surveys Results show that vegetation structure in our Swaziland research grids comprise denser tree and shrub community than in KNP. Variability among season is evident in the grass biomass as it typically decreases during the dry, winter season. In Swaziland, the lack of recent mega-herbivore activity is evident when compared to KNP. Rodent community composition In Table 3, data showed that more rodents species were captured in Swaziland (especially during winter) in comparison to KNP. On closer inspection, vegetation structure plays an important control in the community composition and abundance of rodents in an area. During summer, food is readily available and rodents tend to be less dependent on traps as an opportunity to obtain food (oats is used in these traps to bait rodents). In KNP, however, vegetation structure is more homogenous, grassy with few shrubs, which translate to fewer habitats for specialized species and instead favour a small amount of general species (Appendix 1). Few such patterns were illustrated by Swaziland data but to a lesser degree. Figure 1 illustrates part of the capture process. Table 3: Showing the number of rodent species captured among seasons in the Swaziland Savanna/Lowveld and Kruger National Park. LOCATION WINTER 2013 SUMMER 2013 Swaziland Lowevel 12 9 Kruger National Park 5* 6 * inconclusive data A B Figures 1: Morphological measurements (weight, tail-, body-, ear- and hind foot length) are taken from the rodent (A) after which it is tagged and released (B). Page 5

6 Camera trap footage Based on our camera images, 16 species were recorded in Swaziland during both winter and summer surveys. Footage from KNP surveys are still being processed by Jose Soto (University of Florida) who will be basing a large part of his PhD on this data. Tentatively, KNP camera traps have captured 17 species, as summarized in Table 4. Figure 2 illustrate some interesting candid camera snap shots. Table 4: Animal species captured by camera traps in Swaziland and KNP during the summer surveys. Data also indicate the time of the day which the species were photographed; not necessarily reflecting that particular species activity. NAME PEAK ACTIVITY LOCATION Aardvark Nocturnal Swaziland Baboon Diurnal Swaziland, KNP Wildebeest, blue Diurnal Swaziland, KNP Bushbuck Nocturnal Swaziland, KNP Bushpig Nocturnal Swaziland Buffalo Nocturnal KNP Guineafowl, helmeted Diurnal Swaziland Duiker Nocturnal KNP Elephant Diurnal KNP Genet, small spotted Nocturnal Swaziland, KNP Giraffe Diurnal Swaziland, KNP Hyaena Nocturnal Swaziland, KNP Impala Diurnal Swaziland, KNP Kudu Diurnal Swaziland, KNP Mongoose, white-tailed Nocturnal Swaziland Monkey, vervet Diurnal Swaziland, KNP Nyala Diurnal Swaziland, KNP Rhino, white Nocturnal KNP Spurfowl, Natal Diurnal KNP Warthog Diurnal Swaziland, KNP Zebra Diurnal Swaziland, KNP Diurnal: mainly active during the day Nocturnal: mainly active during at night Page 6

7 A B C D E F G H Figure 2: A-D represent images of animals in Mlawula Nature Reserve and Mbuluzi Game Reserve (baboon [A], kudu [B], impala [C], blue wildebeest [D]) whereas E-H represent images from Kruger National Park (field ranger [E], white rhino [F], elephant [G], spotted hyeana [H]). Page 7

8 Bird community composition Data showed that 86 bird species were recorded in Swaziland during winter and 106 during summer surveys, as opposed to 104 species recorded in KNP during the same season (Table 5, Appendix 2). Of these, 13 and 22 migrant species were respectively recorded during summer in Swaziland and KNP (Table 6). During summer, migrant birds (Palaearctic or Intra-African) are evident in our area as these birds at the onset of Northern Hemispheric winters migrate thousands of kilometers south to escape the winter and in doing so, spend the season in sunny southern Africa. At the onset of our winter season, these migrant birds embark on yet another epic journey back to the northern hemisphere in search of optimal conditions (hence the difference in species composition between winter and summer surveys, as illustrated in Table 5). Table 5: Showing the number of species recorded among seasons in the Swaziland Savanna/Lowveld and Kruger National Park. LOCATION WINTER SUMMER Swaziland Lowveld (13) Kruger National Park * 104 (22) * inconclusive data Table 6: A list of migrant species recorded in Swaziland and Kruger National Park during the summer surveys (see Appendix 2 for a full species list). SPECIES STATUS LOCATION African paradise flycatcher* Intra-African migrant SWD Amur Falcon Palaearctic migrant KNP Barn Swallow Palaearctic migrant SWD, KNP Black cuckoo Intra-African migrant SWD Booted Eagle Palaearctic migrant KNP Collared Pratincole Intra-African migrant KNP Comb Duck Intra-African migrant KNP Common House-Martin Palaearctic migrant KNP Common Swift Palaearctic migrant KNP Dideric Cuckoo Intra-African migrant SWD, KNP European bee-eater Palaearctic migrant SWD, KNP European Roller Palaearctic migrant KNP Harlequin Quail Intra-African migrant KNP Icterine Warbler Palaearctic migrant KNP Jacobin Cuckoo Intra-African migrant SWD, KNP Klaas's cuckoo* Intra-African migrant SWD Kurrichane Buttonquail Intra-African migrant KNP Lesser Grey Shrike Palaearctic migrant KNP Levaillant's Cuckoo Intra-African migrant KNP Red-backed Shrike Palaearctic migrant KNP Page 8

9 Red-billed Buffalo-Weaver Intra-African migrant KNP Red-chested cuckoo Intra-African migrant SWD Spotted Flycatcher Palaearctic migrant KNP Violet-backed starling Intra-African migrant SWD Wahlberg's Eagle Intra-African migrant SWD Willow wabler Palaearctic migrant SWD, KNP Woodland Kingfisher Intra-African migrant SWD, KNP Yellow-billed kite Intra-African migrant SWD, KNP Palaearctic migrant: a species that migrates from and to the region represented by North Africa northwards into Europe and parts of Asia Intra-African migrant: a species that stays completely within Africa during the course of its migratory movements * some individuals over-winter in Swaziland 3.2 White-backed vultures Annual vulture chick monitoring - Siphiso River Valley (Mlawula Nature Reserve) Although being wide-spread throughout southern Africa, white-backed vultures have faced severe population declines over the last century (of up to 80%) mainly due to habitat loss, poisoning, electrocution and poaching of chicks. Vultures also have intrinsic traits which render them vulnerable to local extinction as they spend most of the year close to their nest site, they have a long breeding cycle, produce only 1 offspring per year and adults invest a lot of time and energy into raising that one chick. Studies have, however, shown that juveniles have the lowest survival rate of all age classes and adults the highest almost 99% of adults can be expected from one year to the next. But to cross that threshold into the safe zone, chicks have to survive as juveniles. Therefore, their survival is a key factor in the conservation of these species. In recent years, vultures have shown an increased dependence on protected areas for breeding, mainly in response to an increasing human population. However, they still travel vast distances to forage and, in doing so, are exposed to threats associated with unprotected areas. The Swaziland population is regarded as relatively safe, however, very little is still known about them. Through our studies (which include tagging and GPS-tracking of the birds) we are hoping to reveal how far and to where they travel), identify nesting sites and determine survival rates of local populations information vital to their conservation efforts. Through the expert guidance of Professor Monadjem (from UNISWA), the Siphiso River Valley (~ 8km long) in Mlawula Nature Reserve is surveyed every winter. This entails walking through the river valley and plot the GPS coordinates of active vulture nests. In 2013, ~ 10 active nests were recorded. During winter, the birds start preparing for their breeding season (early summer). When the chicks have hatched (October/November), the Savanna Research team returns to the valley in order to tag all chicks possible. The process is as follows (Figure 3): Mduduzi climbs the trees where all the active nests have been recorded, holding only a bag in one hand and a rope in the other he slithers up the tallest tree like a boomslang, captures the chick from the nest, puts it in the bag and lowers it down to the ground team. The ground team does morphological measurements, tags the chick and puts it back in the bag to be Page 9

10 hoisted back up to its nest and released with the least amount of trauma. After the chicks have fledged (leave the nest) sightings of the tagged individuals are reported by members of the public (date and location noted) after which its habitat utilization can be established. Figure 3: Mduduzi (indicated by arrow) climbs a tall tree bearing a vulture nest (indicated by square) and captures a chick, puts it in a bag and lowers it down to the ground team after which morphological measurements are taken, the chick is tagged, put back in the bag and hoisted up again to return it safely to the nest. 10 Page

11 Vulture Restaurant / Passive Capture Cage Hlane Royal National Park A PhD study was launched in Mbuluzi Game Reserve through AOA Research Camp, Professor Monadjem and student Adam Kane from Trinity University (Ireland). The over-arching objective of this study is to attract vultures by establishing a vulture restaurant / passive capture cage and ultimately capture eight individuals in this cage, tag them and fit some with GPS transmitters, in order to monitor their habitat utilization and dispersal patterns. A vulture restaurant is basically a designated area where animal carcasses are disposed of in order to attract scavengers over time - in this case, vultures. The capture cage (Figure 4) was constructed in the direct vicinity of the restaurant in order to habituate the vultures to the structure. Unfortunately, despite our best efforts, vultures were not attracted to the area. Instead, the restaurant attracted poachers dogs (Figures 5). Consequently, we had to re-establish the restaurant and cage trap at Hlane Royal National Park. The capture cage is being constructed over a period of time, each week adding another piece of the puzzle in order to slowly habituate the vultures to the unfamiliar man-made addition to their natural habitat. After construction, an animal carcass is put out with the hopes of attracting vultures. Our first attempt of attracting these birds took place after the foundation poles were planted. An impala carcass was put out at 10am (15 Jan 2014) and the vultures descended to feed around 12am. The carcass was finished within 10 minutes after which black-backed jackal consumed whatever was left (Figure 6). Our second attempt took place after putting up the wire mesh roof and yet another impala carcass. The attempt did attract vultures, however, they refused to enter the cage with roof over the top. The birds preferred sitting in nearby trees instead. That evening, we hoisted the carcass up onto cage to prevent hyeanas from dragging it away. We had to re-set the carcass the following morning further away from the cage. We will slowly but surely continue habituating the vultures to the construction by moving the carcass closer to the middle of the cage. Figure 4: Vulture capture cage (6m long, 4m wide, 5m tall). 11 Page

12 Figure 5: Poachers and their dogs captured by the motion sensor trip camera at the Mbuluzi vulture restaurant A B C Figure 6: Images of white-backed vultures feeding on an impala carcass (A-C) after which black-backed jackal (D) finished the scraps a successful first attempt at the Hlane vulture restaurant and capture cage. D 12 Page

13 RAINFALL (MM) 4. NON-RESEARCH RELATED TOPICS 4.1 Season festivities Winter The winter season, especially August, had brought about quite a lot of excitement in terms of burning fire breaks around our Research Camp and assisting Mbuluzi Game Reserve in fighting unanticipated veldt fires (Figure 7). A B Figure 7: Preparing to burn fire breaks MGR staff wet the thatched roof of our camp s building (A) after which ignition commenced and strips of veldt were burnt around the entire camp (B). Many days (and a few nights) after the initial burn were spent fighting run away fires that were fueled by the incredibly strong winds. Summer At the onset of summer, rainfall events and thunder storms increased in intensity and frequency (Figure 8). The Mbuluzi River flooded its banks three times since the start of the rainy season. These events necessitated the need for a few crucial camp upgrades Rainfall (Jun - Dec 2012, 2013) Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec MONTH Figure 8: Rainfall received during June December 2012, Page

14 4.2 Camp upgrades Camp upgrades include roof structures over the main tents and bathrooms as well as a verandah overlooking the Mbuluzi River Valley the verandah will be an extension of the research building which will greatly enhance its efficiency and capacity. 4.3 Intimidating encounters Poaching is an ongoing activity in Mbuluzi Game Reserve. However, proactive anti-poaching missions by MGR rangers have caused it to decrease. Following camera trap surveys, we have been able to identify hot spots of poaching activity by capturing poachers on cameras (specifically at night) in certain parts of the reserve. We report all incidences to the Reserve Manager. Crocodile attacks have been on the increase in the Mlawula and Mbuluzi Rivers at the onset of the summer peak. A few weeks ago, a cow was attacked by a crocodile close to the Research Camp. At the beginning of this year, one of the local villagers was nearly attacked by a crocodile when she wanted to fetch water in the Mbuluzi River. When the girl walked into the river to scoop up water in a bucket, a crocodile shot out of the water and grabbed the bucket. The girl escaped with her life. A fatal encounter took place in the south of MGR where a sugar cane worker illegality entered the reserve to fish. A crocodile attacked the man and he succumb to his injuries. A few nights ago, the child of one of MGR maintenance staff was bitten twice by a Mfezi / Mozambiquan spitting cobra. Due to the rapid response and assistance from MGR management, near-by community members as well as our very own AOA herpetologist student stationed at the Research Camp (Jacob Owen), the boy s life was saved after the snake was positively identified (Jacob assisted in capturing and identifying the snake) and eight vials of anti-venom were administered to the boy by the leading snake expert in the area. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My sincerest gratitude goes out to Team All Out Africa (UBUNTU), MGR and Mlawula Nature Reserve management and staff for their incredible support and contribution to the success of this Research Camp. AOA volunteers have contributed tremendously in assisting with all aspects of the Research Camp activities and research. Universities of Auburn, Tarleton and Florida are sincerely thanked for their invaluable donations of research- and field equipment. 14 Page

15 Appendices Appendix 1: List of rodent species recorded throughout 2013 COMMON NAMES SCIENTIFIC NAMES LOCATION AND SEASON Dwarf shrew Suncus infinitesimus SWD winter Fat mouse Steatomys pratensis SWD winter, summer; KNP winter, summer Grey climbing mouse Dendromus melanotis SWD winter Multimammate SWD winter, summer; KNP Mastomys natalensis mouse winter, summer Namaqua rock mouse Aethomys namaquensis SWD winter Pouched mouse Saccostomus campestris SWD winter, summer; KNP summer Pygmy mouse Mus minutoides SWD winter, summer Red Veld Rat Aethomys chrysophilus SWD winter, summer Short Snouted Elephantulus Elephant Shrew brachyrhynchus SWD winter Shrew spp. ~ SWD winter, summer; KNP summer Single striped mouse Lemniscomys rosalia SWD winter; KNP summer Swamp musk shrew Crocidura mariquensis SWD summer Unknown ~ SWD winter ~ Aethomys ineptus SWD summer ~ Gerbilliscus leucogaster KNP summer 15 Page

16 Appendix 2: List of birds species recorded during summer 2013 in Swaziland and Kruger National Park BIRD SPECIES LIST: SUMMER 2013 SWAZILAND KRUGER NATIONAL PARK Acacia pied barbet African Grey Hornbill African dusky flycatcher African Mourning Dove African firefinch African Palm Swift African Fish Eagle Amur Falcon African goshowk Arrow-marked Babbler African green pigeon Barn Owl African hoopoe Barn Swallow African palm swift Bateleur African paradise flycatcher Bearded Woodpecker Amethyst sunbird Bennett's Woodpecker Arrow-marked babbler Black bellied Bustard Barn Swallow Black chested Snake Eagle Bearded woodpecker Black Coucal Black cuckoo Black-collared Barbet Black cuckooshrike Black-crowned Tchagra Black saw-wing Black-shouldered Kite Black-backed puffback Blue Waxbill Black-bellied bustard Booted Eagle Black-collard barbet Brown Snake Eagle Black-crowned tchagra Brown-crowned Tchagra Black-headed oriole Brown-headed Parrot Black-shouldered kite Brubru Blue waxbill Burchell's Coucal Bronze mannikin Burchell's Starling Brown-crowned tchagra Burnt-necked Eremomela Brown-hooded kingfisher Cape Glossy Starling Brubru Cape Turtle Dove Burchell's coucal Cardinal Woodpecker Cape glossy starling Cattle Egret Cape turtle dove Chinspot Batis Cape white-eye Collared Pratincole Cape-turtle dove Comb Duck Cardinal woodpecker Common House-Martin Chinspot batis Common Swift Common scimitarbill Crested Francolin Common waxbill Croaking Cisticola Crested guineafowl Dideric Cuckoo Croacking cisticola Egyptian Goose Crowned hornbill Emerald spotted Wood Dove Dark-capped bulbul European Bee Eater Diederick cuckoo European Roller 16 Page

17 Eastern nicator Emerald spotted wood dove European bee-eater Fork-tailed drongo Golden-breasted bunting Goldent-tailed woodpecker Gorgeous bushshrike Greater honeyguide Green wood-hoopoe Greenback camaroptera Green-backed camaroptera Grey-headed bushshrike Hadida ibis Helmeted guineafowl Jacobin cuckoo Jameson's firefinch Klaas's cuckoo Kurrichane thrush Lesser-striped swallow Little bee-eater Little swift Long-billed crombec Marico sunbird Natal spurfowl Orange-breasted bushshrike Pale flycatcher Purple-crested turaco Rattling cisticola Red-backed shrike Red-billed oxpecker Red-billed quelea Red-chested cuckoo Red-collared widowbird Red-eyed dove Red-face mousebird Red-headed weaver Rets'z helmet-shrike Scarlet-chested sunbird Sombre greenbul Southern black flycatcher Southern black tit Southern boubou Southern masked weaver Speckled mousebird Flappet Lark Fork-tailed Drongo Gabar Goshawk Green Wood-Hoopoe Green-winged Pytilia Grey Go-Away Bird Grey Heron Grey Penduline Tit Grey-headed Bushshrike Grey-rumped Swallow Harlequin Quail Helmeted Guineafowl Hooded Vulture Icterine Warbler Jacobin Cuckoo Kurrichane Buttonquail Lappet-faced Vulture Laughing Dove Lesser Grey Shrike Levaillant's Cuckoo Lilac-breasted Roller Little Swift Long-billed Crombec Magpie Shrike Marico Sunbird Martial Eagle Natal Spurfowl Pale Flycatcher Pearl-spotted Owlet Pied Crow Purple Roller Rattling Cisticola Red-backed Shrike Red-billed Buffalo-Weaver Red-billed Hornbill Red-billed Oxpecker Red-billed Quelea Red-faced Mousebird Rufous-naped Lark Sabota Lark Scarlet-chested Sunbird Shelley's Francolin Southern Black Tit Southern Ground-Hornbill 17 Page

18 Spectacled weaver Striped kingfisher Tawny-flanked prinia Trumpeter hornbill Village weaver Violet-backed starling Wahlberg's Eagle Western osprey White-backed vulture White-bellied sunbird White-browed robin-chat White-browed scrub robin White-crested helmet shrike Willow wabler Woodland kingfisher Yellow fronted canary Yellow-billed kite Yellow-breasted apalis Yellow-fronted canary Yellow-throated longclaw Yellow-throated petronia Southern Masked-Weaver Southern Yellow-billed Hornbill Spotted Flycatcher Spur-winged Goose Swainson's Spurfowl Tawny Eagle Wahlberg's Eagle Wattled Starling White-backed Vulture White-browed Scrub-Robin White-crested Helmet-Shrike White-headed Vulture Willow Warbler Woodland Kingfisher Yellow-billed Hornbill Yellow-breasted Apalis Yellow-throated Longclaw Yellow-throated Petronia Zitting Cisticola 18 Page