Vertical Array Milli-Pin System for Alternative Joint Technology
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1 Vertical Array Milli-Pin System for Alternative Joint Technology P. Chang 1, A. N. Rider 1, R. Gravina 2 and C. H. Wang 3 1 Air Vehicles Division, Defence Science and Technology Organisation, PO Box 4331, Melbourne, Victoria, 3001, Australia 2 Qinetiq Aerostructures Limited, Melbourne, Australia 3 Sir Lawrence Wackett Aerospace Research Centre, RMIT University, Australia Abstract The application of bonded repairs to flight critical aircraft structure is typically on the basis that the structure can sustain design ultimate load in the absence of the repair. The reason for not giving structural credit to adhesively bonded repair to safetycritical structures is the lack of reliable methods to non-destructively inspect an adhesive bond to guarantee its structural integrity. Consequently, when bonded doublers are applied as reinforcement to fatigue susceptible aircraft structure, the same inspection interval is maintained, despite clear reductions in stress and associated damage growth rates. The current paper examines the possibility of combining a novel vertical array milli-pin system (VAMPS) as a new repair technique, which might be employed to enable certification of bonded repairs or replace bonded repairs altogether. Carbon-fibre reinforced polymer laminate was joined using 0.5 mm diameter steel pins with pitch being four times the pin diameter. The effective lap-shear strength and fatigue performance of the 12.5 mm overlap joints prepared using the VAMPS were compared with bonded joints of the same overlap length as well as hybrid joints combining the adhesive and VAMPS. Preliminary data indicates the VAMPS joint residual strength is comparable to the bonded joint and is resistant to fatigue where peak stresses approach 80% of the hot/wet strength of the adhesive joint. Keywords: bonded repairs, z-pins, fastened joints Introduction Mechanical fastening of joints together with adhesive bonding to create a hybrid joint has been studied in literature [1-3] going as far back as the early 1980s [4]. Typically, the work on hybrid joints has been of the bonded and bolted variety (with fastener diameters of approximately 6 mm). The bonded and pinned variety of joints are scarce (where pin diameters measure less than one millimetre). Published work on pinned composites has largely involved the use of composite pins suspended in foam preform and inserted into uncured laminate via ultrasonic vibration [5]. This method provides a quick way of achieving through-thickness reinforcement. No report could be located in the literature about the use of micro pins having a diameter less than one millimetre. The limited published work on joints have used composite pins [6], where the joints contained no adhesive and the composite laminate substrates were cocured with the pins. The practise of inserting the pins into uncured laminate cannot be applied to existing aircraft structure for repair application. To manufacture fastened repairs on-aircraft, matching pin holes would have to be drilled into the repair patch and parent structure, with pins inserted afterwards. The present research examines the feasibility of using micro-pins, with or without adhesive bonding, as a method for repairing aircraft structure. The pins serve as a mechanical fastening system in addition to the adhesive, potentially providing a 40
2 certifiable repair technique, much in the same way that fastened repairs are currently applied to fracture critical structure. Airworthiness regulations currently do not certify adhesive bonded repairs for safety critical structures because the lack of reliable nondestructive inspection techniques that are capable of detecting weak or kissing bonds. A functional mechanical fastening method may help advance the use of adhesive bonding on composite aircraft structure by providing a means to ensure the repair can sustain the ultimate load case, whilst the bondline could provide the fatigue durability required. Potentially, the benefit of using such a large number of small diameter pins is that the bearing stress around the pin hole can be lowered to avoid bearing failure. If the pins are of sufficient density, it is possible to achieve strength comparable to a traditional fastened repair. Modern aircraft demand high performance such as high cruising speed, giving rise to the demand for superior hot-wet properties so that adhesive bonds can sustain the design load at elevated temperature. It is hypothesised that hybrid joints might benefit from the strength of mechanical pin reinforcement in hot wet conditions whilst retaining the exceptional fatigue performance of the adhesive bond. To this end, different configurations of pin reinforced single lap joints are experimentally tested at room temperature and hot-wet conditions, either statically or under fatigue. Different design variables of pinned-bonded joint architecture are investigated to determine their influences on pinning efficacy. These parameters include laminate stacking sequence, pin material and pin-to-laminate adhesion. Experimentation A pinning arrangement was selected based on guidelines from literature and implemented in a single lap joint. To assess the performance of the pinned joint, a known structural bonding system was used as a reference. For this study, the combination of prepreg composite laminate and structural film adhesive were Cycom bismaleimide (BMI) resin with IM-7 carbon fibre and FM-32 adhesive, respectively. Previous work has demonstrated that the shear strength of adhesive bonded joints made from this combination was 30 MPa at room temperature and 15 MPa under elevated temperature (177 C) wet conditions [7]. The lap joint specimen dimensions, Figure 1, were designed to be similar to standard test coupon size with the overlap length designed for practical reasons relating to pin insertion. In order to avoid pin pull-out [6] a combined adherend thickness of 8mm was used at the overlap to provide sufficient vertical stabilisation against pin rotation [8], Figure 1. Figure 1 Lap joint specimen dimensions The pin material was 0.5 mm diameter stainless steel and was similar to other z- pinning studies [5]. Based on previous work, a square pinning array with a 4 diameter spacing was used [9], which equated to a 5 percent areal density, higher than that used 41
3 in z-pinning research [6]. Two ply stacking configurations were examined; [0] 30 and [45/0 2 /-45/90] 3s. Pins were either in the form of spring steel or high speed drill bit steel. Four joint types were examined; (a) baseline with steel pins only, (b) interference fit steel pins with adhesive, (c) steel drill bit pins with adhesive and the drill flute allowing adhesive wetting and (d) steel pins with 0.1 mm clearance to allow adhesive wetting of pins. The pin holes were drilled using 0.55 mm drills (Kyocera) using a CNC router with a very slow plunge rate. A typical joint overlap of 12 mm and a specimen width of 20 mm provided a square array of 45 pins(5 rows by 9 columns). Mechanical testing used 1 mm/min crosshead displacement. Joints were conditioned to 1.2% by weight of moisture uptake and tested at 177 C for the hot/wet condition. Digital images of the joint taken during loading provided a loaddisplacement plot. Fatigue cycling used a R ratio of 0.5 and 5 Hz cycling. After 1 million cycles, the specimen was deemed to have run-out. Results and Discussion A list of the results is shown in Table 1. The average shear stress for an equivalent adhesive joint was 28 MPa in unidirectional laminate joints. In an equivalent joint with pins only, the area of the overlap suggested that the adhesive would sustain 6.7 kn (based on the 28 MPa average shear stress) while the pins managed 7.4 kn, which is 10% greater. This result proved that pins could be used to reinforce a lap joint with at least a similar level of strength as an adhesive bond at room temperature. Table 1 Joint strength expressed as shear strength for adhesives and equivalent shear strength for pinned joint Laminate Uni stiff ortho Configuration adhesive only Load N Width mm Length mm Shear Stress* MPa Conditioning RTA RTA RTA pins RTA adhesive pins RTA RTA adhesive drill shaft RTA adhesive drill flute RTA pin only RTA pin adhesive tight RTA pin adhesive loose RTA pin adhesive loose ETW * for pinned joints, shear stress is the load pins carry divided by area of overlap It is suggested that in the early stages of loading, the pins transferred the load from one joint substrate to the next by bearing against the surrounding laminate. At the interface where the substrates overlap, the pins were in a state of shear loading while the joint specimen was relatively straight and undeformed. With further loading, the composite laminate substrates bend owing to the eccentric load path of the single lap joint. This bending allowed the joint overlap region to rotate such that a small component of the axial tensile load contributed to pull-out of the pin. As loading was further increased, the rotation of the overlap stabilised (balanced by the stiffness of the laminate) at about 2.1 degrees from its original true alignment. At higher load the 42
4 composite laminate on which the pin was bearing started to fail and secondly the friction of the pin against the laminate was overcome. As a consequence of both these actions, the pins were allowed space to deform and kink. Beyond this point, the strength of the joint began to diminish. It was also determined that there was no effect on the behaviour of the pins in a single lap joint by varying the ply stacking of the laminate. The load carried by the pins in a unidirectional laminate and a stiff orthotropic laminate were very similar in these preliminary results, both at 7.4 kn. This is an advantageous property for pin reinforcement of structures. Figure 2 shows that the quality of the adhesive bondline in the hybrid joint was poor. This was caused primarily by the slight misalignment of the pins making it difficult for the adherends to achieve intimate contact during bonding. Therefore, without an effective adhesive bond, it is doubtful that a true measure of the synergy between adhesive and pin was measured and new approaches to the bonding of the pinned joints are being examined. The wet elevated temperature performance of a hybrid joint with enlarged pin-holes demonstrated a 15 percent reduction in maximum load carrying capacity from the room temperature case. While the failure mode remained the same, it is expected that the adhesive is more compliant at elevated temperature and yields readily to mechanical loading [7]. Additional results on the pinned joint and hybrid joint with tight fitting pin-holes are planned. Figure 2 Hybrid joint with pins and adhesive, showing the poor quality of the adhesive bondline. It was demonstrated that a pinned joint had 10% more load carrying capacity than an adhesive bond at room temperature and 65% more capacity at hot/wet (data from [7]), which means in the absence of synergy between the two joining methods, the adhesive bondline would fail first, Figure 3, and the pins would then carry the load until failure. The specimen with both adhesive and pins corroborate this argument. The maximum load for the hybrid joint was the same as the pin only joint. While the effect of the interaction between pin and adhesive could not be determined, it was confirmed that both joining methods can coexist without penalty to the mechanical performance of the joint. The load versus relative displacement plot of a hybrid joint, Figure 4, shows a step change in displacement at about 5.8 kn when the adhesive bondline fails. The joint continues to accept further loading when the pins take effect after 0.1 mm of relative displacement. The transition between the adhesive failing and the load uptake by the pins, using a more accurate instrument like a Krieger gauge [10], will be used in future work. Figure 5 shows that while the pinned joint alone has good load carrying capacity, its maximum load occurs after extensive displacement of the laminate substrates. The hybrid joint, besides being stronger, is less compliant. Whether the hybrid joint is truly less compliant requires proof in statistical significance to eliminate doubt over whether the compliance might be due to fit-up (manufacturing variation) or an effect arising from the gap between substrates (bondline). Hybrid joints with pins made from the high speed drill material exhibited 43
5 the same strength as the spring steel pins. The high speed drill material was brittle and the joint failed by fracture of the pins at the substrate interface. On the other hand, the joint with the spring steel pins showed a combination of laminate bearing failure and kinking deformation of the pins, Figure 6. Figure 3 Joint with pins and adhesive showing adhesive bondline failure with pins carrying load Figure 4 Typical graph of load carried by a pinned joint (with adhesive) plotted against the relative displacement of the adherends as measured using a pixel counting process. Stiff orthotropic laminates, pins tight with adhesive. 44
6 Figure 5 Load versus relative displacement between substrates for pin only (blue) pin with adhesive loose fit (green) and pin with adhesive tight fit (red). It would seem an unlikely coincidence that the load would be similar for pins made from different materials. For this joint configuration, it may be that the limiting condition is the bearing strength of the laminate. The hybrid joint specimen which explored the pin-laminate adhesion using channels in the pin (drill flutes) demonstrate poor mechanical strength. The strength was reduced significantly, below that of a simply bonded joint. It remains doubtful whether this joint would have performed well were a good adhesive bond achieved, because the pins failed quite cleanly in shear along the interface. The reduced cross sectional area in the drill flutes, combined with the brittle material was a likely cause for stress concentration making this an inferior pinning option, irrespective of the adhesion between pin and laminate. On the other hand, a hybrid joint with a larger pin hole did perform better than a pinned joint. Figure 5 shows that the performance lies between that of a pinned joint and that of a hybrid joint with tight fitting pin hole. While the adhesion between pin and laminate could account for the increased strength and joint stiffness, the superior result for the hybrid joint with tight fitting pin holes support the argument that friction at the interface of the overlapping substrates might be the more likely cause. Figure 6 Micrographs of the failed pinned joints (without adhesive); the red indicates the position and size of the opening between the adherends as a result of the pins deforming. In terms of scale, the diameter of the pins is 0.5 millimetre. A fatigue test conducted at 0.5 yield stress on a pinned lap joint made from orthotropic laminate and without adhesive ran out after one million cycles. The same 45
7 joint when fatigued at 0.8 yield stress, R=0.1 and 5 Hz failed at 400 cycles. The failed specimen showed some bearing failure at the pin-holes; meanwhile the pins had deformed significantly under the fatigue loading. The signs of bearing failure and extreme deformation of the pins indicate competing mechanisms. Although without the precedence of bearing failure, the pins have no room to deform plastically. The fatigue performance of the pinned joint was well below that expected for an equivalent bonded joint at room temperature. However, at hot/wet test condition, the maximum fatigue stress of the pinned joint would be expected to clearly exceed the performance of the adhesive joint. It remains to be seen how a hybrid joint would respond to cyclic loading, but under hot/wet conditions the pins may need to provide both the strength and durability, particularly, as the operating temperature approaches the adhesive glass transition temperature [7]. FE modelling using StressCheck [10] examined the bearing and bypass stresses in the laminate. Both experimental observation of failure behaviour and known failure mechanisms discussed in the literature [6] provided some perspective in assessing the validity of the modelling. The modelling was principally to determine whether the stress concentrations of the pinned joints were similar to or less than typically encountered with traditionally fastened joints. The model geometry was created to match the coupon specimens used in the experimental investigation, Figure 7, with constituent properties of the model shown in Table 2. Nominal thickness was 4.3 mm and the overlap length was 8.6 mm. Elements in the model were a mixture of 3D solid pentahedral (6 noded) and hexahedral (8 noded). The modelling assumed a tolerance fit, did not allow for sliding within the hole and was constrained against bending. The load transfer between adherends was achieved by defining contact zones on (1) outer surface of each pin, (2) inside surface of each hole and (3) mating adherend surfaces. Frictionless contact used a constant, K C of N/mm/mm 2. An applied load of 81.6 MPa normal traction on each of the end faces provided an equivalent to 7kN load. Table 2 Finite element model constituent properties. Property Laminate Stainless Steel Modulus (GPa) Poisson Ratio Shear Modulus (GPa) E E E λ λ λ G G G Figure 7 Model geometry and model showing meshing. 46
8 The contour plot of principal stresses in Figure 9 show that while the joint is under tension at 80 MPa farfield stress, the portions of the pinned joint under the highest stress are the regions in red and yellow. The results indicate, at least under the constraints imposed by the model, that the bearing stress would not be expected to be significantly different to the farfield stress, which contrasts with traditional fastened systems, where a considerable stress concentration exists. This would infer that no appreciable damage to either pin or laminate would have occurred prior to the onset of joint rotation. Figure 8 Stress contour plot of model loaded to 7 kn failure load showing maximum stress in red at 80 MPa The principal stress across the width of the joint as shown in Figure 8 shows the load attraction near each pin in bypass. This is across the surface of the joint, rather than at the mating surfaces. All of the stresses across the surface are below the applied (farfield) stress. The first row of pins is subjected to the highest stresses. Secondly, in that same row, the stress in the centre is 60 percent higher than the stress at the edge. 47
9 Figure 9 Plots of principal stress across the width of the joint located slightly ahead of each row of pins. The analysis did not show any pronounced regions of stress concentration around the pin hole, Figure 10. Further refinement of the modelling could examine the point at which joint rotation begins and allow for pin pull-out. The stress concentrations established in the non-linear portion of the load displacement curve could provide better insight into the mechanisms leading to failure of the pinned joints. Conclusions The results from this experimental study indicate that there is technical merit in pinning single lap joints with a vertical array of steel milli-pins. Excellent mechanical 48
10 strength was achieved using 0.5 mm steel pins under room temperature and hot/wet test conditions that matched or exceeded equivalent adhesive joints. The load carrying capacity of the pinned single lap joints was unaffected by laminate orthotropy. The two pin materials trialed did not effect joint strength. It was argued that the bearing strength of the laminate material might be the limiting criteria in this single lap joint system. At wet elevated temperature conditions, the hybrid joint with enlarged pin-holes demonstrated a 15 percent knockdown in peak load compared to the room temperature strength, which was due to a slight reduction in laminate strength under these conditions. However, the strength was 65% greater than the equivalent bonded joint. Room temperature fatigue performance of a pinned joint was good at 0.5 yield load. At higher loading, 0.8 yield load, failure occurred almost immediately. The most likely source of initiation being bearing failure of the laminate followed by extensive deformation of the pins. Figure 10 Stress contours for (a) Principal stress and (b) stress in x-direction, where red represents the applied maximum stress of 80 MPa. 49
11 Acknowledgements The authors thank Mr. David Dellios and Mr. Phil Wilson for manufacturing the specimens, and Dr. Alex Harman for his shared expertise. References [1] Barut, A. Madenci, E Analysis of bolted-bonded composite single-lap joints under combined in-plane and transverse loading. Composite Structures. 88. pp [2] Camanho, P.P. Tavares, C.M.L. de Oliveira, R. Marques, A.T. Ferreira, A.J.M Increasing the efficiency of composite single-shear lap joints using bonded inserts. Composites: Part B. 36. pp [3] Kelly, G Load transfer in hybrid (bonded/bolted) composite single-lap joints. Composite Structures. 69. pp [4] Hart-Smith, L.J Bonded-Bolted Composite Joints. Journal of Aircraft. 22. [5] Mouritz, A.P Review of z-pinned composite laminates. Composites: Part A. 38. pp [6] Chang, P. Mouritz, A.P., Cox, B.N Properties and failure mechanisms of pinned composite lap joints in monotonic and cyclic tension. Composites Science and Technology. 66. pp [7] Rider, A.N., Wang, C.H., Chang, P. "Bonded repairs for carbon/bmi composite at high operating temperatures", Composites Part A, 41, , 2010 [8] ASTM D : Standard test method for thick-adherend metal lapshear joints for determination of the stress-strain behaviour of adhesives in shear by tension loading. ASTM International. [9] Wang, C.H., Gunnion, A.J., Orifici, A.C., Harman, A., Rider, A.N., Chang, P., Dellios, D. "Effect of Load-Bypass on Structural Efficiencies of Bonded and Bolted Repairs",, Proceedings of ICCM-17, July, 2009, Edinburgh, UK [10] Engineering Software Research and Development Inc., StressCheck 9.0, November
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