Wood & Timber. Wood & Timber

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1 Introduction Important points concerning wood: 1. Many kinds (>30,000 species of trees) 2. Wood is a composite material 3. Natural material (many flaws, imperfections) 4. Anisotropic (mechanical properties vary with respect to load orientation)

2 Terminology: Introduction Wood - (Materials) refers to small clear specimens free of any macroscopic defects. Timber - (Structural), refers to sawn structural members and may contain a wide variety of macroscopic defects Specific Values per unit weight basis Introduction Three distinct parts: 1. Root System 2. Trunk 3. Crown

3 Introduction Sections of the Trunk 1. Outer Bark - protection 2. Inner Bark - sap transport 3. Cambium - growth 4. Wood: Sapwood - food storage, moisture transport Heartwood - nonliving cells

4 Sections of the Trunk 5. Annual Rings: Springwood, earlywood - rapid growth, large cells, thin walls Summerwood, latewood - slow growth, small cells, thick walls 6. Pith - primary tissue, original growth Sections of the Trunk

5 Sections of the Trunk Sections of the Trunk

6 Sections of the Trunk Sections of the Trunk

7 Macrostructure Growth Rings Growth rings vary in width depending on species and site conditions. Rings formed during short or dry seasons are thinner than those formed when growing conditions are more favourable. Rings formed in shady conditions are usually thinner than those formed by the same species in sunny conditions. It is commonly believed that the age of a tree may be determined by counting these rings but this method can lead to errors because abnormal environmental conditions can cause a tree to produce multiple-growth increments or even prevent growth entirely for a period. Macrostructure Growth Rings

8 Macrostructure Growth Rings Sections of the Trunk

9 Microstructure Softwoods: Have needle-like lik or scale-like lik leaves and a relatively l simple cell structure. Typically coniferous. Ex. Spruce, Pine, Fir, Cedar, Hemlock Hardwoods: Have broad leaves and a more complicated cell structure. Typically deciduous. Ex. Oak, Maple, Walnut, Ash, Birch, Elm Though hardwood tends to be denser, stronger and more resistant to decay, the vast majority of lumber is made from softwood for economic reasons. Microstructure Wood is primarily composed of hollow, elongated, spindle-shaped shaped cells that are arranged parallel to each other along the trunk of a tree (similar to a bundle of drinking straws). When lumber and other products are cut from the tree, the characteristics of these fibrous cells and their arrangement affect such properties as strength and shrinkage as well as the grain pattern of the wood. The directionality of these long narrow cells result in a anisotropic materials, whose mechanical properties vary depending upon the direction in which they are tested.

10 Microstructure Hardwood Microstructure Softwood Wood properties are highly directional!!

11 Microstructure Microstructure

12 Microstructure Bundles of aligned thin walled tubes, glued together Middle lamella (lignin): between cells Primary wall: Cellulose microfibrils, random irregular network Secondary wall: S1, S2 (thickest layer), S3 Microstructure

13 Microstructure Previous slide: (a) Simplified model of the microstructure of wood showing bundles of aligned thin-walled tubes (known also as cellulose cells) and the structure of the cell wall. (b) Transmission electron micrograph of a cell wall cross-section, showing layered structure, including middle lamella (ML). primary wall (P), and the three layers of the secondary cell walls, S1, S2, S3. Microstructure

14 Microstructure Microstructure

15 Microstructure - Microfibrils The secondary layers (walls) consist of helically arranged cellulose microfibrils oriented toward the long axis of the tracheid. Microfibrils are threadlike bundles of cellulose relatively parallel to each other. Microfibril angle is measured as the angular deviation from the vertical cell wall of the microfibrils in the S2 layer. Orientation of the S2 microfibril angle has a significant influence on tensile strength, stiffness, and shrinkage. Longitudinal shrinkage increases sharply while tangential shrinkage decreases at microfibril angles greater than 25 degrees. Microstructure - Microfibrils Relative thickness of the P, S1, and S3 layers contributes significantly ifi to the variability of longitudinal l shrinkage. Microfibrils have lignins and hemicellulose between the cellulose molecules which increases the shear strength between them. Thus, they contribute to the tensile strength and toughness of wood. The covalent bonding forces along the length of the microfibrils are much stronger than the secondary forces binding them together laterally. This fact leads to the highly orthotropic behavior of wood.

16 Molecular Structure Wood is composed of cellulose, lignin, hemicelluloses, and minor amounts (5-10%) of extraneous materials contained in a cellular structure. Variations in the characteristics and volume of these components and differences in cellular structure make woods heavy or light, stiff or flexible. 1) Cellulose: 45-50% of wood composition Linear polymer made up of thousands of glucose units covalently bonded leads to high tensile strength and stiffness of cellulose. The cellulose molecules are laterally bonded in linear bundles by a combination of hydrogen bonding and Van der Waals bonding. Molecular Structure 1) Cellulose (continued) Hydroxyl groups (OH-) in glucose generate Van der Waals and H-bonding to adjacent molecules. They attract OH- groups of adjacent molecules of cellulose, creating microfibrils. They attract water molecules and hence are largely responsible for the swelling and shrinking that wood undergoes when it is wetted and dried. 2) Hemicellulose: 20-25% of wood composition Important in the paper-making process. Provide much of the fiber-to-fiber bonding. Built up of variety of different sugar molecules.

17 Molecular Structure 3) Lignins: 20-30% of wood composition Have a complex 3-dimensional structure. Built up from phenyl propane units. Permeate the matrix of cellulose microfibrils in the cell walls. Fill the spaces between wood cells. Impart rigidity and compressive strength to the cell walls. 4) Extractives: 0-10% of wood composition Do not form a part of the basic wood structure. Responsible for color, odor, taste etc Molecular Structure

18 Molecular Structure Variability The properties of a single species are relatively constant within limits; thus the selection of wood by species alone may sometimes be adequate. To use wood to its best advantage and most effectively in engineering applications, specific characteristics or physical properties must be considered.

19 Macrostructure - Grain Grain is a very important t feature of wood and timber - depending upon its characteristics, some properties of timber can vary significantly. Wood is an orthotropic material, that is, it has unique and independent mechanical properties in the directions of three mutually perpendicular axes: longitudinal, radial, and tangential. The longitudinal axis is parallel to the fiber (grain); the radial axis is normal to the growth rings (perpendicular to the grain in the radial direction); and the tangential axis is perpendicular to the grain but tangent to the growth rings. Macrostructure - Grain The anisotropic axes of wood structure.

20 Macrostructure - Grain The anisotropic axes of wood structure. Macrostructure - Grain All mechanical properties are affected by direction of loading. The mechanical properties along the longitudinal axis are normally higher than those in the radial and tangential direction. When wood is loaded in compression along the grain, most of the cell walls are compressed axially, thus failure involves localized buckling of the cell wall. However, when it is loaded across the grain, the cell walls bend, hollow wood cells simply collapse or flatten: compressive strength is therefore lower.

21 Macrostructure - Grain Defects Wood refers to small, clear specimens, free of any macroscopic defects. Wood specimens are used to study relationships between microstructure and properties. Timber: normal sawn structural members found in a lumberyard. Timber contains a large number of defects which govern the structural properties, like the underlying structure of wood does. Grains in timber can be compared to fibers; they affect tensile, compressive, shear strength and the variation of modulus of elasticity.

22 Defects As the tree grows in height, branching is initiated by lateral bud development. The lateral branches are intergrown with the wood of the trunk as long as they are alive. After a branch dies, the trunk continues to increase in diameter and surrounds that portion of the branch projecting from the trunk when the branch died. If the dead branches drop from the tree, the dead stubs become overgrown and clear wood is formed. Defects

23 Defects The mechanical properties p measured on wood are modified by natural defects and abnormalities, which occur as a function of the way in which a tree grows. In general, the defects all have tendency to decrease the strength of the wood and change its mode of failure. Flaws are not uniformly distributed in trees, thus a large variability in strength can be found within a tree. Defects Diagrammatic representation of the density distribution in a spruce stem

24 Defects Fiber and ring orientation: in structural timber, depending on how uniform the grain was in the original tree, the grain direction may not coincide with the axes of the board. Defects

25 Defects Defects

26 Defects Defects Knots: the portion of a limb that has been surrounded by subsequent growth of wood.

27 Defects Knots: Knots distort the fibers around the knots which leads to tensile stresses perpendicular to the grain even if it is loaded in tension. Defects Knots: The effects of knots depend on size, type, frequency, and location of the knots.

28 Defects Checks: a lengthwise separation of the wood which usually extends across the growth ring, it commonly results from the drying process. Defects Wane: the lack of wood on the face of a piece, for any reason at all.

29 Defects Shake: separation along the grain, between the annual growth ring. Defects Pitch pocket: opening between growth rings containing resins or bark.

30 Defects Defects Effects of knots on the failure pattern in timber beams: (a) knot at bottom of beam

31 Defects Effects of knots on the failure pattern in timber beams: (b) knot at top of beam Defects

32 Grading Visual Grading: Density (rate of growth, % of latewood) Decay Heartwood or Sapwood (affects durability) Knots (type, size, location) Slope of Grain Shakes, Checks, Splits Wane Pitch Pockets Mechanical Grading: Stiffness (Related to Modulus of Elasticity) Nondestructive Grading: Modulus of Elasticity Grading

33 Grading Grading

34 Grading Specific Gravity Relative density of cell wall material ~ 1.5 for all species. Overall relative density ranges dramatically by species: Balsa wood = 0.04 Lignum Vitae = 1.40 Relative density is a function of void space (or porosity). S = S 1 0 ( p) n S = mechanical property S 0 = value of S at zero porosity p = porosity n = empirical constant

35 Specific Gravity Specific Gravity

36 Moisture Moisture can exist in wood in two states: 1. Free water within the cell cavities (evaporates first). 2. Bound water, absorbed into the cell walls. Fiber Saturation Point: The condition in which all of the free water in the cell cavities has evaporated, but the cell walls are still fully saturated. Typically 25-32% moisture content. Moisture

37 Moisture As drying drops below fiber saturation point, there is removal of water from cell walls which causes compaction of molecular structure and the formation of more H-bonding. Thus, wood will shrink and become stronger. Above the fiber saturation point, there is little or no effect on mechanical properties. However, below the fiber saturation point, the mechanical properties of wood are related to the amount of moisture available. Moisture content of wood is defined as the weight of water in wood expressed as a fraction, usually a percentage, of the weight of wood. Moisture

38 Moisture Moisture Weight, shrinkage, hi strength, th and other properties depend d upon the moisture content. In trees, moisture content can range from about 30% to more than 200% of the weight of wood substance. In softwoods, the moisture content of sapwood is usually greater than that of heartwood. In hardwoods, the difference in moisture content between heartwood and sapwood depends on the species.

39 Moisture Green wood is often defined as freshly sawn wood in which the cell walls are completely saturated with water; however, green wood usually contains additional water within the cell cavities. During drying, the outer parts of a board can be drier than the fiber saturation point while the inner parts are greater than fiber saturation. As moisture content t increases, thermal and electrical l conductivity increase, as well as the rate of creep. Wood in service is exposed to both long-term (seasonal) and short-term (daily) changes in relative humidity and temperature of the surrounding air. Moisture Thus, wood is always undergoing at least slight changes in moisture content. These changes are usually gradual, and short-term fluctuations tend to influence only the wood surface. Moisture content changes can be retarded, but not prevented, by protective coatings, such as varnish, lacquer or paint. Another way to keep the moisture content at a certain percentage is through drying.

40 Moisture Shrinkage Volumetric shrinkage Proportional to volume of water lost Shrinkage is different in different directions The loss of water from cell walls induces attractive forces between microfibrils, causing them to bunch together. Since microfibrils are parallel to grain, there is a large reduction in volume perpendicular to the axis of the cells. There is a small amount of shrinkage longitudinally. With respect to shrinkage characteristics, wood is thus an anisotropic material.

41 Shrinkage Wood is dimensionally stable when the moisture content is greater than the fiber saturation point. Wood changes dimension as it gains or loses moisture below that point. It shrinks when losing moisture from the cell walls and swells when gaining moisture in the cell walls. This shrinking and swelling can result in warping, checking, splitting, and loosening of tool handles, gaps in strip flooring, or performance problems that detract from the usefulness of the wood product. Shrinkage Wood shrinks most in the direction of annual growth rings (tangentially), about half as much across the rings (radially), and only slightly along the grain (longitudinally). The combined effects of radial and tangential shrinkage can distort the shape of wood pieces because of the difference in shrinkage and the curvature of annual rings. Greater shrinkage is associated with greater density. The size and shape of a piece of wood can affect shrinkage, and the rate of drying for some species can also affect shrinkage.

42 Shrinkage Shrinkage Fiber Saturation Point

43 Shrinkage Shrinkage

44 Shrinkage Curing Curing timber is important because it improves its properties and protects it from interaction with external elements. It also prevents shrinkage because part of the moisture is removed which causes it to shrink (in axial direction). The wood is dried before usage - by kiln or air. It is important to dry the wood so as to avoid shrinkage after construction.

45 Curing

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