1 Possible and Fictional Worlds

Transcription

1 Notes Introduction 1. My thanks to Alec Boksenberg for his conversations on this matter. I quote him with his permission from one of these conversations in June 2011 at Churchill College, Cambridge. Thanks to Professor Boksenberg for also reading this segment over for accuracy of content and expression. Any misconstrual of his explanation is owing to the limits of my understanding of astronomy. Professor Boksenberg, a fellow of the Royal Society and former director of the Royal Greenwich Observatory and the Royal Observatory Edinburgh, is honorary professor of experimental astronomy, University of Cambridge. He is an observational cosmologist in the broadest sense both constructing innovative telescopes and instruments and observing the cosmos and interpreting the results. His Image Photon Counting System (IPCS) is a camera that records detections of single particles of light. Lucinda Douglas- Menzies s portrait of Alec Boksenberg is in the collection of the National Portrait Gallery in London. See also The Role of Astronomy in Society and Culture, ed. David Valls- Gabaud and Alexander Boksenberg, Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union (2009) Volume 5, Symposium S260, Cambridge University Press, Je r om e B r u ne r, The Culture of Education (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996), Alec Boksenberg, Catastrophe! The Looting and Destruction of Iraq s Past, Reception at the Society of Antiquaries, Burlington House, Piccadilly, London W1J, Monday June 15, 2009, 6.00 p.m. to 7.30 p.m. 4. The Two Cultures, Rede Lecture, Cambridge, Snow, a scientist and novelist, was in a good position to discuss the problem. C. P. Snow, The Two Cultures (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1960). For a discussion of science, criticism, and history, see Jonathan Hart, Introduction, City of the End of Things: Lectures on Civilization and Empire, ed. Jonathan Hart (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 2009), S e e F. C. C ople s t on, Aquinas (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1955), 71; Mark Turner, Categories and Analogies, in Analogical Reasoning: Perspectives of Artificial Intelligence, Cognitive Science, and Philosophy (Dordrecht: Kluwer

2 200 Notes to Pages 3 10 Academic Publishers, 1988), 3; Harald Hoffding, Le Concept d analogie (Paris: J. Vrin, 1931); David Burrell, Analogy and Philosophical Language (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1973); Humphrey Palmer, Analogy (London: Macmillan, 1973). On Aristotle s use of analogy in The Nicomachean Ethics, see Ralph M. McInerny, Aquinas and Analogy (Washington, DC: Catholic University Press of America, 1996), Barbara Maria Stafford, Visual Analogy: Consciousness as the Art of Connecting (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999, rpt. 2001), Joke Meheus, Analogical Reasoning in Creative Problem Solving Processes: Logico- Philosophical Processes, in Metaphor and Analogy in the Sciences, ed. Fernand Hallyn (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2000), Keith J. Holyoak and Paul Thagard, Mental Leaps: Analogy in Creative Thought (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996, rpt. 1999), ix x. 9. See Esa Itkonen, Analogy as Structure and Process: Approaches in Linguistics, Cognitive Psychology and the Philosophy of Science (Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2005), xi. 10. See Anthony Pagden, Peoples and Empires (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2001). 11. Here I am thinking of Aristotle s Poetics and Philip Sidney s Defence of Poetry. 12. S e e A d a m K u p e r, Culture: The Anthropologists Account (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999, rpt. 2000), and Terry Eagleton, The Idea of Culture (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000). 13. On translation, see Susan Bassnett, Translation Studies, 3rd ed. (Abingdon: Routledge, 2002), and John Sallis, On Translation (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002). 14. See Jonathan Hart, Theater and World: The Problematics of Shakespeare s History (Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press, 1992); Shakespeare: Poetry, History, and Culture (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009); Shakespeare and His Contemporaries (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011). 15. Ph i l ip Sid ne y, An Apology for Poetry, or, The Defence of Poesy, 3rd ed., ed. R. W. Maslen (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003), Possible and Fictional Worlds 1. Wa y ne C. B o ot h, Critical Understanding: The Powers and Limits of Pluralism (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1979), , R. S. C r a ne, Critics and Criticism: Ancient and Modern, ed. R. S. Crane et al. (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1952), S e e C r a ne, A promising area of research is the intersection of game theory and the theory of fictional worlds. For systematic treatments of game theory, see Robert R. Wilson, Three Prolusions: Toward a Game Model in Literary Theory, Canadian Review of Comparative Literature/Revue Canadienne de Littérature Comparée 8 (1981): 79 92; In Palamedes Shadow: Game and Play Concepts Today, Canadian Review of Comparative Literature/Revue Canadienne de

3 Notes to Pages Littérature Comparée 12 (1985): ; Rules/Conventions: Three Paradoxes in the Game/Text Analogy, South Central Review 4 (1986): 15 27; Play, Transgression and Carnival: Bakhtin and Derrida on Scriptor Ludens, Mosaic 19 (Winter 1986): 73 79; and Bernard Suits, The Grasshopper: Games, Life and Utopia (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1978). Spariosu is important in this discussion of the relation of game and mimesis; see Mihai Spariosu, Literature, Mimesis and Play: Essays in Literary Theory (Tubingen: Gunter Narr, 1982), especially See also Johan Huizinga, Homo Ludens (Leyden, 1938); English translation: Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play- Element in Culture (New York: Ray Publishers, 1950); Roger Caillois, Les Jeux et les hommes: le masque et le vertige (Paris: Gallimard, 1958); Eugen Fink, Das Spiel als Weltsymbol (Stuttgart: G. Umbreit, 1960); and David Miller, God and Games: Toward a Theology of Play (New York: World Publishing Co., 1970). For a view of pre- Socratic imitation, see Gerald Else, Imitation in the Fifth Century, Classical Philology 53 (1958): 73 90, and for a more general view, see Gérard Genette, Figures II (Paris: Seuil, 1969). Thanks to the editor of Canadian Review of Comparative Literature/Revue Canadienne de Littérature Comparée ( CRCL/RCLC ) on behalf of the Canadian Comparative Literature Association for permission to reprint a revised version of A Comparative Pluralism: The Heterogeneity of Methods and the Case of Possible Worlds, CRCL/RCLC 15 (1988): See Raymond Bradley and Norman Swartz, Possible Worlds (Oxford: Blackwell, 1979); Jerome Bruner, On Knowing: Essays for the Left Hand (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1962) and his Actual Minds/Possible Worlds (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986); Edward Casey, Imagining (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1976); Lubomír Doležel, Narrative Worlds, Sound, Sign and Meaning, ed. L. Matejka (Ann Arbor: Michigan Slavic Studies, 1976), his Truth and Authenticity in Narrative, Poetics Today 1 (1980): 7 25, his Towards a Typology of Fictional Worlds, Tamkang Review 14 ( ): , and his Mimesis and Possible Worlds, Poetics Today 9 (1988): ; Saul Kripke, Semantical Considerations on Modal Logic, Acta Philosophica Fennica 16 (1963): 83 94, his Naming and Necessity, in Semantics of Natural Language, ed. D. Davidson and G. Harman (Dordrecht: Reidel, 1972), and his Meinong and the Principle of Independence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); Doreen Maitre, Literature and Possible Worlds (London: Middlesex Polytechnic Press, 1983); Félix Martínez- Bonati, Fictive Discourse and the Structures of Literature: A Phenomenological Approach (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1981) and his Towards a Formal Ontology of Fictional Worlds, Philosophy and Literature 7 (1983): ; Thomas Pavel, Possible Worlds in Literary Semantics, Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 34 (1975): , his Fiction and the Causal Theory of Names, Poetics 8 (1979): , his Ontological Issues in Poetics, Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 40 (1981): , his Tragedy and the Sacred: Notes Towards a Semantic Characterization of a Fictional Genre, Poetics 10 (1981): , his Fictional Landscapes, Studies in 20th Century Literature

4 202 Notes to Pages (1982): , his Incomplete Worlds, Ritual Emotions, Philosophy and Literature 7 (1983): 48 58, his Borders of Fiction, Poetics Today 4 (1983): 83 88, and his Fictional Worlds (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986). 6. M a it r e, Literature and Possible Worlds, 13, 23. See Floyd Merrel, Pararealities: The Nature of Our Fictions and How We Know Them (Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1983). See Margolin s perceptive review of Maitre (also of Merrel). Margolin distinguishes between ontological and epistemological approaches to possible worlds; see Uri Margolin, Dealing with the Non- Actual: Conception, Reception, Description, Poetics Today 9 (1988): 863. See Judith Ryan, Validating the Possible: Thoughts and Things in James, Rilke, and Musil, Comparative Literature 40 (1988): See Ed Cohen, Writing Gone Wilde: Homoerotic Desire in the Closet of Representation, PMLA 102 (October 1987): ; Margaret Drabble, Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in the Post- War Novel, Mosaic 20 (Winter 1987): 1 14; Sandy Petrey, The Reality of Representation: Between Marx and Balzac, Critical Inquiry 14 (Spring 1988): ; Luiz Costa- Lima, Erich Auerbach: History and Metahistory, New Literary History 19 (1988): ; Lubomír Doležel, Mimesis and Possible Worlds, Poetics Today 9 (1988): ; Michal Glowinski, Document as Novel, New Literary History 18 (1988): ; Peter Hughes, Painting the Ghost: Wittgenstein, Shakespeare, and Textual Representation, New Literary History 19 (1988): ; Holger A. Pausch, Anmerkungen zum Status der Literatur der Gegenwart und zur Bedeutung ihrer Sprachkonzepte, Seminar: A Journal of Germanic Studies 23 (February 1987): 1 22; Sandy Petrey, Castration, Speech Acts, and the Realist Difference: S/Z versus Sarrasine, PMLA 102 (March 1987): ; Jean Pfaelzer, The Changing of the Avant- Garde: The Feminist Utopia, Science Fiction Studies 15 (1988): ; Jeannette Laillou Savona, Dé- lire et délit/ces: Stratégies des lectures féministes (Coward, de Lauretis, Moi, Cixous, Brossard, etc.), Canadian Review of Comparative Literature/Revue Canadienne de la Littérature Comparée 15 (1988): For instance, Savona examines episteme and ideology as premise in the dilemmas of theories and theoretical approaches among feminists. 8. M a it r e, Literature and Possible Worlds, 18, M a it r e, Literature and Possible Worlds, 28, M a it r e, Literature and Possible Worlds, See Lilian R. Furst, Realism and Its Code of Accreditation, Comparative Literature Studies 25 (1988): M a it r e, Literature and Possible Worlds, See Walton. 13. M a it r e, Literature and Possible Worlds, E r n s t K a ntorow ic z, The King s Two Bodies: A Study in Mediaeval Political Theology (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1957, rev. 1997); Stephen Jay Gould, Ontogeny and Phylogeny (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1977); and T. S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Chicago, IL: Univ. of Chicago

5 Notes to Pages Press, See John Neubauer, Literature and Science: Future Possibilities, University of Hartford Studies in Literature 19 (1987): 53 59; Stuart Peterfreund, Literature and Science: The Present State of the Field, University of Hartford Studies in Literature 19 (1987): 25 36; G. S. Rousseau, The Discourse(s) of Science and Literature, University of Hartford Studies in Literature 19 (1987): 1 24; E. S. Shafer, Literature and Science: Towards a New Literary History, University of Hartford Studies in Literature 19 (1987): M a it r e, Literature and Possible Worlds, 41 48, See K. Anders Ericsson, Concurrent Verbal Reports on Text Comprehension: A Review, Text 8 (1988): ; Bruce Henricksen, The Construction of the Narrator in The Nigger of the Narcissus, PMLA 103 (October 1988): ; Steen F. Larsen and Uffe Seilman, Personal Remindings while Reading Literature, Text 8 (1988): ; William C. Mann and Sandra A. Thompson, Rhetorical Structure Theory: Toward a Functional Theory of Text Organization, Text 8 (1988): ; David S. Miall, Affect and Narrative: A Model of Response to Stories, Poetics 17 (1988): M a it r e, Literature and Possible Worlds, M a it r e, Literature and Possible Worlds, M a it r e, Literature and Possible Worlds, M a it r e, Literature and Possible Worlds, Martínez-Bonati, Towards a Formal Ontology, 182; see Martínez-Bonati, Fictive Discourse. 21. Martínez-Bonati, Towards a Formal Ontology, Martínez-Bonati, Towards a Formal Ontology, Martínez-Bonati, Towards a Formal Ontology, Martínez-Bonati, Towards a Formal Ontology, Martínez-Bonati, Towards a Formal Ontology, Martínez-Bonati, Towards a Formal Ontology, Martínez-Bonati, Towards a Formal Ontology, Wilson, Palamedes Shadow, Martínez- Bonati, Towards a Formal Ontology, See also Gerhard Deffner, Concurrent Thinking Aloud: An On- line Tool for Studying Representations Used in Text Understanding, Text 8 (1988): ; Paul Pickrel, Character as Nominal: A Sketch for a Theory, Novel: A Forum for Fiction 22 (1988): 66 85; Michael Robertson, Narrative Logic, Folktales and Machines, Orbis Litterarum 43 (1988): 1 19; Marie- Laure Ryan, The Heuristics of Automatic Story Generation, Poetics 16 (1987): ; Susan Wright, Tense Meanings as Style of Fictional Narrative: Present Tense Use in J. M. Coetzee s In the Heart of the Country, Poetics 16 (1987): Martínez-Bonati, Towards a Formal Ontology, Martínez-Bonati, Towards a Formal Ontology, Martínez-Bonati, Towards a Formal Ontology, 185, Martínez-Bonati, Towards a Formal Ontology, See Thomas Pavel, Formalism in Narrative Semiotics, Poetics Today 9 (1988):

6 204 Notes to Pages Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, See John Haegert, Autobiography as Fiction: The Example of Stop- Time, Modern Fiction Studies 33 (1987): ; Terence Wright, Choice and Choosing in Fiction, The Modern Language Review 83 (1988): ; Robert Alter, The Difference of Literature, Poetics Today 9 (1988): ; Philip Dodd, History or Fiction: Balancing Contemporary Autobiography s Claims, Mosaic 20 (Fall 1987): 81 89; Robert Gould, Spinoza and Lavater in Dictung und Wahrheit and the Paradoxical Nature of Autobiography, Seminar: A Journal of Germanic Studies 24 (November 1988): ; Evelyn J. Hinz, A Speculative Introduction: Life- Writing as Drama, Mosaic 20 (Fall 1987): v xii; Linda Hutcheon, The Postmodern Problematizing of History, English Studies in Canada 14 (1988): ; Anthony Paul Kerby, The Adequacy of Self- Narration: A Hermeneutical Approach, Philosophy and Literature 12 (1988): ; see the special issue, edited by Clayton Koelb, Narrative Theory, Modern Fiction Studies 33 (1987): which includes his preface (407 12); Ira B. Nadel, Narrative and the Popularity of Biography, Mosaic 20 (Fall 1987): Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, Pa v e l, The Poetics of Plot (1985), 6, 13, See Nilli Diengott, Thematics: Generating or Theming a Text? Orbis Litterarum 43 (1988): ; see Pavel, Formalism, (1988) Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, 61. See Eliade. 57. Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, See Marie- Laure Ryan, The Heuristics, (1987); Doležel Mimesis, (1988):

7 Notes to Pages Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, 138, 139. See Terence Wright, Choice, (1988). 74. Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, 138, Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, Pa v e l, Fictional Worlds, Bruner also discusses other hermeneutic divisions: Nicholas of Lyra proposed many centuries ago [ Postilla litteralis ( ), Postilla mystica sen moralis (1339)], for example, that biblical texts are amenable to four levels of interpretation: litera, moralis, allegoria, and anogogia, the literal, the ethical, the historical, and the mystical (Jerome Bruner, Actual Minds, Possible Worlds (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986), 5, see also 172. It might be sometimes difficult to equate, as Bruner does, allegoria and the historical. Aquinas, Dante, and Boccaccio also follow or adapt Augustine s four levels. 79. B r u ne r, Actual Minds, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, 15, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, 37, see B r u ne r, Actual Minds, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, See Philip Dodd, History, (1987); Linda Hutcheon, The Postmodern, (1988) B r u ne r, Actual Minds, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, 42, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, 53.

8 206 Notes to Pages B r u ne r, Actual Minds, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, 78, see B r u ne r, Actual Minds, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, See Jacqueline Henkel, Speech- Act Theory Revisited: Rule Notions and Reader- Oriented Criticism, Poetics 17 (1988): ; Sandy Petrey, Castration, (1987) B r u ne r, Actual Minds, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, See Volker Durr, Personal Identity and the Idea of the Novel: Hegel in Rilke, Comparative Literature 39 (1987): ; K. Ericsson, Concurrent (1988); Jacqueline Henkel, Speech- Act, (1988); Anthony Kerby The Adequacy, (1988); S. Larsen and U. Seilman, Personal, (1988); David Miall, Affect, (1988); the special issue, edited by Gary F. Waller, The New Rhetoric and the New Literary Theory: Cognitive and Cultural Interaction, Poetics 16 (1987): , including Waller s introduction (103 07) B r u ne r, Actual Minds, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, 154. See Ihab Hassan, Making Sense: The Trials of Post- Modernist Discourse, New Literary History 19 (1987): B r u ne r, Actual Minds, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, B r u ne r, Actual Minds, Lubomír Doležel, Typology, Doležel, Typology, 262, see Narrative D ole ž e l, Ty p olo g y, D ole ž e l, Ty p olo g y, 2 63.

9 Notes to Pages D ole ž e l, Ty p olo g y, D ole ž e l, Ty p olo g y, See Lubomír Doležel, Mimesis, (1988) D ole ž e l, M i m e s i s, D ole ž e l, M i m e s i s, D ole ž e l, M i m e s i s, D ole ž e l, M i m e s i s, D ole ž e l, M i m e s i s, D ole ž e l, M i m e s i s, D ole ž e l, Doležel, Mimesis, See Harro Müller, A Few Poisoned Arrows Wouldn t Be So Bad: Ten Interjections on the Connection between Historical Theory, Hermeneutics, and Literary Historiography, Poetics 16 (1987): ; Edward Pechter, The New Historicism and Its Discontents: Politicizing Renaissance Drama, PMLA 102 (May 1987): D ole ž e l, M i m e s i s, See Doležel, Mimesis, D ole ž e l, M i m e s i s, Doležel, Mimesis, D ole ž e l, M i m e s i s, D ole ž e l, M i m e s i s, Doležel, Mimesis, (1988), See Richard Creese, Objects in Novels and the Fringe of Culture: Graham Greene and Alain Robbe- Grillet, Comparative Literature 39 (Winter 1987): 58 73; Ellen G. Friedman, Utterly Other Discourse: The Anticanon of Experimental of Experimental Women Writers from Dorothy Richardson to Christine Brooke- Rose, Modern Fiction Studies 34 (1988): ; Katherine C. Kurk, Narration as Salvation: Textual Ethics of Michel Tournier and John Barth, Comparative Literature Studies 25 (1988): ; Graham Law, Il s agissait peut- être d un roman policier: Leblance, Macdonald, and Robbe- Grillet, Comparative Literature 40 (1988): ; David Darby, The Narrative Text as Palimpsest: Levels of Discourse in Peter Handke s Die Hornissen, Seminar: A Journal of Germanic Studies 23 (September 1987): ; Petrey, Castration, (1987); Marguerite K. Garstin, Alain Robbe- Grillet and Pop Art: Technique and Iconography in Dans les Couloirs du métropolitain, La Maison de rendezvous, and Projet pour la révolution à New York, Canadian Review of Comparative Literature/Revue Canadienne de la Littérature Comparée 14 (1987): D ole ž e l, M i m e s i s, John Woods and Peter Alward, The Logic of Fiction, Handbook of Philosophical Logic, 2nd. ed., vol. 11, ed. D. M. Gabbay and F. Guenthner (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2004), Joh n D i v e r s, Possible Worlds (London and New York: Routledge, 2002), 299. See David Lewis, Truth in Fiction, American Philosophical Quarterly 15

10 208 Notes to Pages (1978): 37 46, and Lewis Postscript to Truth in Fiction, in Philosophical Papers, vol. 1 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), Peter Alward, That s the Fictional Truth, Ruth, Acta Anal 25 (2010): Alward, That s the Fictional Truth, 351. See G. Currie, Fictional Truth, Philosophical Studies 50 (1986): ; G. Currie, The Nature of Fiction (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). On making believe, see Kendall L. Walton, Mimesis as Make-Believe: On the Foundations of the Representational Arts (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990) Alward, That s the Fictional Truth, 354. See A. Byrne, Truth in Fiction: The Story Continued, Australasian Journal of Philosophy, 71, 31. For some of Alward s other work, see Peter Alward, Leave Me Out of It: de re But Not de se Imaginative Engagement with Fiction, Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 64 (2006): ; Peter Alward, Onstage Illocution, Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 67 (2009): This is something I admired but noted when I discussed semiotics in the 1980s. See, for instance, Jonathan Hart, Keir Elam, The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama, Marlowe Society of America Book Reviews 4 (Spring 1985): On speech- act theory and fiction, see John Searle, The Logical Status of Fictional Discourse, New Literary History 6 (1975): , and S. Hoffman, Fiction as Action: Currie and Searle on Speech Act Theory and the Nature of Fiction, Philosophia 31 (2004): D i v e r s, i C u r r ie, Nature (1990), Brian MacArthur, Hitler s Diaries Scandal: We d Printed the Scoop of the Century, Then It Turned to Dust, The Daily Telegraph, April 25, In the electronic version, there is the caption under the photograph: Lord Dacre, formerly Hugh Trevor Roper: his reputation never recovered. The electronic version was accessed at / H it l e r-d i a r i e s -s c a n d a l - We d - p r i nt e d - t h e - s c o o p - o f- t h e - c e nt u r y- t h e n - it- t u r n e d -to-dust.html C u r r ie, Nature, C u r r ie, Nature, C u r r ie, Nature, Wa lt on, Mimesis, Walton, Walton, L u b om í r D ole ž e l, Heterocosmica: Fiction and Possible Worlds (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998); see Doležel, Fictional Worlds: Density, Gaps, and Inference, Style 29 (1995): and Possible Worlds of Fiction and History, New Literary History 29 (1998): On adaptation, see Cindy Chopoidalo, The Possible Worlds of Hamlet : Shakespeare as Adaptor, Adaptations of Shakespeare, PhD thesis, University of Alberta, Fall 2009, which discusses Doležel and other theorists of possible and fictional worlds, especially in the introduction and chapter 1.

11 Notes to Pages D ole ž e l, Heterocosmica, L u b om í r D ole ž e l, Possible Worlds of Fiction and History (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010), vii R ut h R on a n, Possible Worlds in Literary Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 1. 2 The Author Makes a Comeback 1. Wi l l i a m S h a k e s p e a r e, The Riverside Shakespeare, 2nd ed., ed. G. Blakemore Evans with J. J. M. Tobin (Boston, MA and New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1997). 2. See Ernst Kantorowicz, The King s Two Bodies: A Study in Medieval Political Theology. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1957, rpt See Luigi Pirandello, Six Characters in Search of an Author and Other Plays, trans. Mark Musa (London: Penguin, 1995). 4. A r i s t ot le, Rhetoric, trans. W Rhys Roberts (1924. New York: Dover, 2004), 1354A, 3. See Brad McAdon, Rhetoric Is the Counterpart to Dialectic, Philosophy and Rhetoric 34 (2002): Thanks to the editor for permission to reprint a revised version of The Author Writes Back (and Speaks Up), Primerjalna književnost 31.2 (2008): A r i s t ot le, Rhetoric, 1355a. 6. A r i s t ot le, Rhetoric, 1355a. 7. On A r i s tot le s Rhetoric, see Larry Arnhart, Aristotle on Political Reasoning: A Commentary on the Rhetoric (DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 1981); Janet Atwill, Rhetoric Reclaimed: Aristotle and the Liberal Arts Tradition (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998); Paul D. Brandes, A History of Aristotle s Rhetoric, with a Bibliography of Early Printings (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow, 1989); T. Burns, The Tragedy of Slavery: Aristotle s Rhetoric and the History of the Concept of Natural Law, History of Political Thought 24 (2003): 16 36; Edward W. Clayton, The Audience for Aristotle s Rhetoric, Rhetorica 22 (2004): ; Keith V. Erickson, Aristotle: The Classical Heritage of Rhetoric (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow, 1974), his Aristotle s Rhetoric: Five Centuries of Philological Research (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow, 1975), and his A Bibliography for the Study of Aristotle s Rhetoric, Rhetoric Society Quarterly 12 (1982): 55 61; Thomas B. Farrell, Philosophy against Rhetoric in Aristotle, Philosophy and Rhetoric 28 (1995): ; David J. Furley and Alexander Nehamas, Aristotle s Rhetoric: Philosophical Essays (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994); Eugene Garver, Aristotle s Rhetoric as a Work of Philosophy, Philosophy and Rhetoric 19 (1986): 1 22; John Rainolds s Oxford Lectures on Aristotle s Rhetoric, ed. Lawrence D. Green (Newark, NJ: University of Delaware Press, 1986); Alan G. Gross and Arthur E. Walzer, Rereading Aristotle s Rhetoric (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2000); Ekaterina V. Haskins, Logos and Power in Isocrates and Aristotle (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 2004); Lee Sisson Hultzâen,

12 210 Notes to Pages Aristotle s Rhetoric in England to 1600 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1932); Everett Lee Hunt, Plato and Aristotle on Rhetoric and Rhetoricians, Essays on the Rhetoric of the Western World, ed. Edward P. J. Corbett, James L. Golden, and Goodwin F. Berquist (Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt, 1990), ; Michael Leff, The Uses of Aristotle s Rhetoric in Contemporary American Scholarship, Argumentation 7 (1993): ; Samuel R. Levin, Aristotle s Theory of Metaphor, Philosophy and Rhetoric 15 (1982): 24 46; A. J. London, Amenable to Reason: Aristotle s Rhetoric and the Moral Psychology of Practical Ethics, Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 10 (2000): ; Jean Dietz Moss, Reclaiming Aristotle s Rhetoric, The Review of Metaphysics 50 (1997): ; Jasper P. Neel, Aristotle s Voice: Rhetoric, Theory, and Writing in America (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1994); Sara. J. Newman, Aristotle s Definition of Rhetoric in the Rhetoric: The Metaphors and Their Message, Written Communication 18 (2001): 3 25; John Poulakos, Sophistical Rhetoric in Classical Greece (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1995); W. Rhys Roberts, Notes on Aristotle s Rhetoric, American Journal of Philology 45 (1924): , and his References to Plato in Aristotle s Rhetoric, Classical Philology 19 (1924): ; Amâelie Rorty, Essays on Aristotle s Rhetoric (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996); Allen Speight, Listening to Reason : The Role of Persuasion in Aristotle s Account of Praise, Blame, and the Voluntary, Philosophy and Rhetoric 38 (2005): ; Mark E. Wildermuth, Hobbes, Aristotle, and the Materialist Rhetor, Rhetoric Society Quarterly 27.1 (1997): 69 80; Jakob Wisse, Ethos and Pathos: From Aristotle to Cicero (Amsterdam: Hakkert, 1989). See also Aristotle, On Rhetoric: A Theory of Civic Discourse, ed. and trans. George Alexander Kennedy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991). 8. S e e Pl a t o, The Republic of Plato. trans. Francis MacDonald Cornford (London: Oxford University Press, 1941, rpt. 1945), Book X, 595 A- 608 B. 9. T. S. Eliot, Tradition and the Individual Talent, The Sacred Wood; Essays on Poetry and Criticism. (London: Methuen & Co, 1920), section A r i s t ot le, Poetics, trans. H. Hamilton Fyfe (London: Heinnemann, 1927). 11. A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry and Fine Arts with a Critical Text and Translation of The Poetics, trans. S. H. Butcher, 4th ed. (London: Macmillan, 1911). In order to make this work more accessible, I will also refer to the Internet version according to sections and parts. See /poetics.1.1.html, Section I, Part A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry and Fine Arts with a Critical Text and Translation of The Poetics, trans. S. H. Butcher, 4th ed. (London: Macmillan, 1911); also the Internet version at Section 1, Part I. 13. A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher. See also the Internet version at Section 1, Part II. 14. See T. S. Frobish, An Origin of a Theory: A Comparison of Ethos in the Homeric Iliad with That Found in Aristotle s Rhetoric, Rhetoric Review 22 (2002):

13 Notes to Pages S e e W h it ne y J. O ate s, Aristotle and the Problem of Value (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963); John Herman Randall Jr., Aristotle (New York: Columbia University Press, 1960); Aristide Tessitore, Reading Aristotle s Ethics: Virtue, Rhetoric, and Political Philosophy (Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1996). 16. A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher. See also the Internet version at Section 1, Part IV. 17. A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher. See also the Internet version at Section 1, Part IV. 18. A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher. See also the Internet version at Section 1, Part IV. 19. A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher. See also the Internet version at Section 1, Part IV A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher. See also the Internet version at Section 1, Part V. 21. Arthur Miller, Tragedy and the Common Man, The New York Times, February 27, 1949, 11, 1 3, rpt. in Arthur Miller, Death of a Salesman (Text and Criticism: The Viking Critical Library), ed. Gerald Weales (New York: Viking 1967, rpt. 1977), A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 1, Part VI A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher. See also the Internet version at Section 1, Part VI A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 1, Part VI. 25. A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 1, Part VI A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 1, Part VI A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 1, Part VI A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 1, Part VI. 29. A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 1, Part VI A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 1, Part VI. 31. A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 1, Part VI. 32. A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 1, Part VI. 33. A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 1, Part VI A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 1, Part VI.

14 212 Notes to Pages A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the internet version at Section 1, Part VI A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 1, Part VI. 37. A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 1, Part VI A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 1, Part VI. 39. A r i s tot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 2, Part VIII A r i s tot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 2, Part VIII. 41. A r i s tot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 2, Part VIII A r i s tot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 2, Part VIII. 43. See Bertolt Brecht Brecht on Theatre, trans. John Willett (New York, 1964) and Roland Barthes, S/Z (Paris: Seuil, 1970); in translation New York, 1974 and London, A nony m ou s, The famovs Victories of Henry the Fifth (London: Thomas Creede, 1598). 45. M a r v i n C a r l s on, Theories of the Theatre: A Historical and Critical Survey, from the Greeks to the Present (Ithaca, NY and London: Cornell University Press, 1984), See André Burguière, L École des Annales: une histoire intellectuelle (Paris: O. Jacob, 2006); Carlo Ginzburg, The Cheese and the Worms: The Cosmos of a Sixteenth- century Miller, trans. John and Anne Tedeschi (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980), and his History, Rhetoric, and Proof. The Menahem Stern Jerusalem Lectures (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1999); John Brannigan, New Historicism and Cultural Materialism (New York: St. Martin s, 1998). 47. Wi l l i a m B l a k e, Poetry and Prose, ed. David V. Erdman (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1965) Ph i l ip Sid ne y, Defence of Poetry, ed. J. A. Van Dorsten (1595. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1966). See Paula H. Payne, Tracing Aristotle s Rhetoric in Sir Philip Sidney s Poetry and Prose, Rhetoric Society Quarterly 20 (1990): See William Shakespeare, Henry V, Film, Directed by Laurence Olivier, Two Cities Films, 1944, and Shakespeare, Henry V, Film, Directed by Kenneth Branagh. BBC/Renaissance Films, A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 2, Part IX. 51. A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 2, Part IX.

15 Notes to Pages A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 2, Part IX. 53. A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 2, Part IX A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 2, Part IX. 55. A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 2, Part XI A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 2, Part XI. 57. A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 2, Part XI. 58. A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 2, Part XI. 59. A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 2, Part XI A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 2, Part XI. 61. A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 2, Part XI. 62. A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 2, Part XI. 63. A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 2, Part XI A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 2, Part XI. 65. A r i s tot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 2, Part XVI A r i s tot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 2, Part XVI. 67. A r i s tot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 2, Part XVI A r i s tot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 2, Part XVI. 69. A r i s tot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 2, Part XVI. 70. A r i s tot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 2, Part XVI. 71. A r i s tot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 2, Part XVI. 72. Aristotle, Section 2, Part XVI. See Sophocles, Oedipus the King, trans. David Grene. Greek Tragedies, vol. 1., ed. David Grene and Richmond Lattimore (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1960).

16 214 Notes to Pages A r i s tot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 2, Part XVI. 74. A r i stot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 3, Part XXIV. See Homer, The Iliad, trans. E. V. Rieu (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1950, rpt. 1977). 75. A r i s tot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 3, Part XXIV. 76. A r i s tot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 3, Part XXIV A r i s tot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 3, Part XXIV. 78. A r i s tot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 3, Part XXIV. 79. A r i s tot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 3, Part XXIV A r i s tot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet v ersion at Section 3, Part XXIV. See Oscar Wilde, The Decay of Lying (New York: Sunflower Co., 1902). 81. A r i s tot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 3, Part XXIV. 82. A r i s tot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 3, Part XXV. 83. A r i s tot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher; see also the Internet version at Section 3, Part XXVI T he Hol y Bible. The Authorized or King James Version of 1611 Now Reprinted with the Apocrypha. With Reproductions of 105 of the Sixteenth- Centurys Woodcuts of Bernard Salomon. (London, Nonesuch Press, 1963). Some of the discussion in this section overlaps with that in my Interpreting Cultures: Literature, Religion, and the Human Sciences (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), and Literature, Theory, History (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011). 85. Hom e r, Iliad, S opho c le s, Oedipus, Me n a nd e r, The Grouch, trans. Lionel Casson, Greek Comedy. ed. Robert W. Corrigan (New York: Dell, 1965, rpt. 1973), Pl a t o, Republic, ed. and trans. Cornford, xxix. 89. Georg W. F. Hegel, Philosophy of History, History of Philosophy: Selected Readings, ed. George L. Abernathy and T. A. Langford (Belmont, CA: Dickenson, 1969), 537, see Je a n d e L é r y, History of a Voyage to the Land of Brazil, trans. Janet Whatley (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), Sigmund Freud, On Beginning the Treatment (1913), The Freud Reader, ed. Peter Gay (New York: W. W. Norton, 1989), Julia Kristeva, The Novel as Polylogue, Desire in Language: A Semiotic Approach to Literature and Art, ed. L. S. Roudiez, trans. T. Gora, A. Jardine, and L. S. Roudiez (Oxford: Blackwell, 1981), 207.

17 Notes to Pages Recognizing Otherness and Comparison 1. On theory and Comparative Literature, see Richard Rorty, Looking Back at Literary Theory, in Comparative Literature in an Age of Globalization, ed. Haun Saussy (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006), See, for instance, Jonathan Hart, Representing the New World: The English and French Uses of the Example of Spain, (New York: Palgrave, 2001). Thanks to Rajnath, editor and publisher, for permission to reprint a revised version of Recognitions, Otherness and Comparing Literatures and Histories, Journal of Literary Criticism (June/December 2008): C l i f ford G e er t z, Available Light: Anthropological Reflections on Philosophical Topics (Princeton, NJ and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2000, rpt. 2001), For a more detailed discussion, see Jonathan Hart, Interpreting Cultures: Literature, Religion and the Human Sciences (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006). 5. A r i s t ot le, The Rhetoric of Aristotle, trans. W. Rhys Roberts (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1924), 1354a, A r i s t ot le, Rhetoric, 1355a. 7. A r i s t ot le, Rhetoric, 1355a. 8. A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry, trans. S. H. Butcher. See also the Internet version at Section 1, Part II. 9. A r i s tot le, Aristotle s Poetics, trans. George Walley, ed. John Baxter and Patrick Atherton (Montreal and Kingston: McGill- Queen s University Press, 1997), A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry and Fine Arts with a Critical Text and Translation of The Poetics, trans. S. H. Butcher, 4th ed. (London: Macmillan, 1911). See also the Internet version at Section 1, Part II and Aristotle, Poetics, trans. H. Hamilton Fyfe (London: Heinnemann, 1927). 11. A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry and Fine Arts with a Critical Text and Translation of The Poetics, trans. S. H. Butcher, 4th ed. (London: Macmillan, 1911). See also the Internet version at Section 1, Part VI. 12. A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry and Fine Arts with a Critical Text and Translation of The Poetics, trans. S. H. Butcher, 4th ed. (London: Macmillan, 1911). See also the Internet version at Section 1, Part VI 13. A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry and Fine Arts with a Critical Text and Translation of The Poetics, trans. S. H. Butcher, 4th ed. (London: Macmillan, 1911). See also the Internet version at Section 1, Part IX. 14. A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Theory of Poetry and Fine Arts with a Critical Text and Translation of The Poetics, trans. S. H. Butcher, 4th ed. (London: Macmillan, 1911). See also the Internet version at html, Section 1, Part IX.

18 216 Notes to Pages See Jonas Barish, The Antitheatrical Prejudice (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981). 16. Bertolt Brecht, Brecht on Theatre, trans. John Willett (New York: Hill and Wang, 1964), B r e c ht, Brecht on Theatre, See Bertolt Brecht, Versuche, 12. Berlin, S e e R ol a nd B a r t he s, S/Z (Paris: Seuil, 1970); in translation New York, 1974 and London, Nor t h r op Fr y e, Anatomy of Criticism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1957, rpt. 1973), Fr y e, Anatomy, Nor t h r op Fr y e, Myth and Metaphor: Selected Essays, (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1992), See Jonathan Hart, Northrop Frye: The Theoretical Imagination (London and New York: Routledge, 1994), Ja c qu e s D e r r id a, Writing and Difference, trans. Alan Bass (Chicago, IL and London: University of Chicago Press, 1978), ; the original published as L Écriture et la différence (Paris, 1967). 25. S e e Pa u l d e M a n, Allegories of Reading (New Haven, CT and London: Yale University Press, 1979) and his Blindness and Insight: Essays in the Rhetoric of Contemporary Criticism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1983). 26. See, for instance, Jean Bessière, Quel statut pour la littérature? (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 2001), Wol f g a n g I s e r, The Implied Reader, trans. David Henry Wilson (Baltimore, MD and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1974), R. G. C ol l i n g w o o d, The Idea of History (1946; London: Oxford University Press,1948, rpt. 1966), C ol l i n g w o o d, Idea of History, See Erich Auerbach, Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature, trans. Willard R. Trask (1946; Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1953, rpt. 1974), Terence Cave, Recognitions: A Study in Poetics (1988; Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990), , E. H. G om br ic h, The Story of Art, 12th ed. (1950; London: Phaidon Press, 1972, rpt. 1973), T hom a s M. Gr e e ne, The Light in Troy: Imitation and Discovery in Renaissance Poetry (New Haven, CT and London: Yale University Press, 1982), A r i s t ot le, Aristotle s Poetics, trans. George Walley, ed. John Baxter and Patrick Atherton (Montreal and Kingston: McGill- Queen s University Press, 1997), 81, 83 [1451a b]; see Carlo Ginzburg, Clues, Myths, and the Historical Method, trans. John and Anne C. Tedeschi (1986; Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989, rpt. 1992), xii., E d w a r d W. S a id, Orientalism (New York: Pantheon Books, 1978); Tzvetan Todorov, The Conquest of America: The Question of the Other, trans. Richard