Cellular Wireless Networks. Chapter 10

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1 Cellular Wireless Networks Chapter 10

2 Cellular Network Organization Use multiple low-power transmitters (100 W or less) Areas divided into cells Each cell is served by base station consisting of transmitter, receiver, and control unit Band of frequencies allocated to each cell Base stations are connected to an MTSO (Mobile Telecommunication Switching Office). The MTSO s are connected usually using a wire-line networks and interfaced with the public telephone network.

3 Frequency Reuse Adjacent cells assigned different frequencies to avoid interference or crosstalk Objective is to reuse frequency in nearby cells 10 to 50 frequencies assigned to each cell Transmission power controlled to limit power at that frequency escaping to adjacent cells The issue is to determine how many cells must intervene between two cells using the same frequency

4 Frequency Reuse Reuse distance D R E A C D F B E A G F d Frequency reuse with N=7

5 Frequency Reuse For hexagonal cells N=I 2 +j 2 +(I*J) where N is the number of cells in a repetition pattern, I,J =0,1,2,3,.. D = d N

6 Approaches to Cope with Increasing Capacity Adding new channels Frequency borrowing frequencies are taken from adjacent cells by congested cells Cell splitting cells in areas of high usage can be split into smaller cells Cell sectoring cells are divided into a number of wedge-shaped sectors, each with their own set of channels Microcells antennas move to buildings, hills, and lamp posts, the size of the cells is smaller and the power is reduced

7 Cellular Systems Terms Base Station (BS) includes an antenna, a controller, and a number of receivers Mobile telecommunications switching office (MTSO) connects calls between mobile units Two types of channels available between mobile unit and BS Control channels used to exchange information having to do with setting up and maintaining calls Traffic channels carry voice or data connection between users

8 Call Management Each mobile phone (AMPS) has a 32-bit serial number and 10- digit telephone number. The phone broadcast its erial number and phone number on a control channels (initially scans for the best control channel available). MTSO register the phone To make a call, phone sends the number to be called on an access channel (retransmit if collision) MTSO receives request, looks for an available voice channel if found, send to the mobile to switch to it and the call is placed; otherwise, the call is dropped For incoming calls, continuously listen to the paging channel, if paged by the base station, switch to a voice channel and starts talking

9 Additional Functions in an MTSO Controlled Call Call blocking Call termination Call drop Calls to/from fixed and remote mobile subscriber

10 Mobile Radio Propagation Effects Signal strength Must be strong enough between base station and mobile unit to maintain signal quality at the receiver Must not be so strong as to create too much cochannel interference with channels in another cell using the same frequency band Fading Signal propagation effects may disrupt the signal and cause errors

11

12 Cochannel Interference Consider the interference between cohannels of A and a mobile in A. Further assume that the mobile is on the tip of cell A, approximately two cells at a distance of D-R, two at a distance of D and two at a distance of D-R Ignore interference from second tier cochannels. Assume a model in which the attenuation is proportional to distance γ and varies between 2-5

13 Cochannel Interference Cochannel Interference ratio CIR C I = C / R γ = 6 γ γ γ γ C / D 2( q 1) + 2q + 2( q + 1) i i= 1 1

14 Handoff Performance Metrics Cell blocking probability probability of a new call being blocked Call dropping probability probability that a call is terminated due to a handoff Call completion probability probability that an admitted call is not dropped before it terminates Probability of unsuccessful handoff probability that a handoff is executed while the reception conditions are inadequate

15 Handoff Performance Metrics Handoff blocking probability probability that a handoff cannot be successfully completed Handoff probability probability that a handoff occurs before call termination Rate of handoff number of handoffs per unit time Interruption duration duration of time during a handoff in which a mobile is not connected to either base station Handoff delay distance the mobile moves from the point at which the handoff should occur to the point at which it does occur

16 Handoff Strategies Relative signal strength Relative signal strength with threshold Relative signal strength with hysteresis Relative signal strength with hysteresis and threshold Prediction techniques

17 Received signal from A Received signal from B th 1 th 2 th 3 H L 1 L 2 L 3 L 4 movement

18 Handoff Strategies Relative Signal Strength The mobile is handed from A to B when the signal from B is stronger than A May lead to ping-pong effect (at L 1 ) Relative Signal Strength with threshold Handoff occurs if the signal is less than a specific threshold and the other signal is stronger Id th 1 handoff at L 1 if th L 2 If low threshold, mobile may move deeply into B before the handoff

19 Handoff Strategies Relative Signal Strength with hysteresis Handoff occurs only if the new base station signal is stronger than the current one by a margin H (L 3 ) in the Figure Prevents ping-pong effect Relative signal strength with threshold and hysteresis Handoff occurs only if the current signal is weaker than a threshold, and the target base station signal is stronger than the current signal by H In the Figure, L 3 if th 1 or th 2, if th 3 at L 4

20 Power Control Design issues making it desirable to include dynamic power control in a cellular system Received power must be sufficiently above the background noise for effective communication Desirable to minimize power in the transmitted signal from the mobile Reduce cochannel interference, alleviate health concerns, save battery power In SS systems using CDMA, it s desirable to equalize the received power level from all mobile units at the BS

21 Types of Power Control Open-loop power control Depends solely on mobile unit No feedback from BS Not as accurate as closed-loop, but can react quicker to fluctuations in signal strength Closed-loop power control Adjusts signal strength in reverse channel based on metric of performance BS makes power adjustment decision and communicates to mobile on control channel

22 Traffic Engineering Ideally, available channels would equal number of subscribers active at one time In practice, not feasible to have capacity handle all possible load For N simultaneous user capacity and L subscribers L < N nonblocking system L > N blocking system

23 Traffic Intensity Load presented to a system: A = λh λ = mean rate of calls attempted per unit time h = mean holding time per successful call A = average number of calls arriving during average holding period, or the system load

24 Traffic Intensity Example: 100 mobile nodes, on the average 30 requests per hour, each call takes 6 minutes. λ = 30 requests = 3600 seconds A = = 3 Erlangs request / sec B( S, = S B() is called Erlang s B formula, it represents the blocking probability, for example B(2,3)=0.6 i.e. 60%v of the calls will be blocked A) A k = 0 S A / S! S / k!

25 Factors that Determine the Nature of the Traffic Model Manner in which blocked calls are handled Lost calls delayed (LCD) blocked calls put in a queue awaiting a free channel Blocked calls rejected and dropped Lost calls cleared (LCC) user waits before another attempt Lost calls held (LCH) user repeatedly attempts calling Number of traffic sources Whether number of users is assumed to be finite or infinite

26 First-Generation Analog Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS) In North America, two 25-MHz bands ( one band in each direction) allocated to AMPS MHz and MHz Each channel is 30KHz (832 channels) Divided into Control, paging, access, and voice channels Actual number of voice channels per cell is 45) Each band split in two to encourage competition

27 Second Generation Systems Digital instead of analog Encryption easy since we are using digital Error detection and correction Again, easier because of digital Allow channel sharing (also easier for digital) D-AMPS, GSM, CSMA

28 Mobile Wireless TDMA Design Considerations Typical values of TDMA systems (typical in the sense of being used in GSM) Number of logical channels (number of time slots in TDMA frame): 8 Maximum cell radius (R): 35 km Frequency: region around 900 MHz Maximum vehicle speed (V m ):250 km/hr Maximum coding delay: approx. 20 ms Maximum delay spread ( m ): 10 µs Bandwidth: Not to exceed 200 khz (25 khz per channel)

29 Steps in Design of TDMA Timeslot

30 GSM Network Architecture

31 Mobile Station Mobile station communicates across Um interface (air interface) with base station transceiver in same cell as mobile unit Mobile equipment (ME) physical terminal, such as a telephone or PCS ME includes radio transceiver, digital signal processors and subscriber identity module (SIM) GSM subscriber units are generic until SIM is inserted SIMs roam, not necessarily the subscriber devices

32 Base Station Subsystem (BSS) BSS consists of base station controller and one or more base transceiver stations (BTS) Each BTS defines a single cell Includes radio antenna, radio transceiver and a link to a base station controller (BSC) BSC reserves radio frequencies, manages handoff of mobile unit from one cell to another within BSS, and controls paging

33 Network Subsystem (NS) NS provides link between cellular network and public switched telecommunications networks Controls handoffs between cells in different BSSs Authenticates users and validates accounts Enables worldwide roaming of mobile users Central element of NS is the mobile switching center (MSC)

34 D-AMPS Digital AMPS is built to be compatible with AMPS It uses the same frequency band, and the same 30KHz channels. MTSO is responsible to determine which channels are analog and which are digital Another frequency band ( , and MHz) was made available for the new system (wave length of 16cm, a 4cm antenna made phones smaller).

35 D-AMPS A 40 ms frame that is divided into 6 slots (2 per user) Each slot is 324 bits (64 control, 101 bit for error correction, 159 for speech data) a little bit less than 8Kbps ms

36 D-AMPS Using predictive encoding the voice call BW is reduced to 8Kbps (could be even educed to 4Kbps and 6 users can share the channel). Better handoff (1/3 of the time the mobile is not sending or receiving, this time can be use to coordinate handoff).

37 GSM Global System for Mobile Communication Used almost everywhere outside N. America, and is spreading in N.A. Uses a combination of TDM and FDM (it actually uses slow frequency hopping) Each frequency band is 200 KHz (124 different bands in each direction) Usually, no transmission and reception in the same time MHz (890.2, 892.4, , 935.4, 959.8MHz)

38 GSM 32,500 bit multiframe transmitted in 120msec control 1250-bit TDM frame sent in msec bits (30 µsec) guard 148-bit data frame in 547 µsec 000 info info 000 sync Sync is a training sequence for linear equalization V/D bit

39 GSM Every user transmits 114*24 every 120 msec. A total B.W. of 22.8 Kbps (much better than D-AMPS Speech encoding does allow a very good error correction mechanism

40 Advantages of CDMA Cellular Frequency diversity frequency-dependent transmission impairments have less effect on signal Multipath resistance chipping codes used for CDMA exhibit low cross correlation and low autocorrelation Privacy privacy is inherent since spread spectrum is obtained by use of noise-like signals Graceful degradation system only gradually degrades as more users access the system

41 Drawbacks of CDMA Cellular Self-jamming arriving transmissions from multiple users not aligned on chip boundaries unless users are perfectly synchronized Near-far problem signals closer to the receiver are received with less attenuation than signals farther away Soft handoff requires that the mobile acquires the new cell before it relinquishes the old; this is more complex than hard handoff used in FDMA and TDMA schemes

42 Mobile Wireless CDMA Design Considerations RAKE receiver when multiple versions of a signal arrive more than one chip interval apart, RAKE receiver attempts to recover signals from multiple paths and combine them This method achieves better performance than simply recovering dominant signal and treating remaining signals as noise Soft Handoff mobile station temporarily connected to more than one base station simultaneously

43 Principle of RAKE Receiver

44 Types of Channels Supported by Forward Link Pilot (channel 0) - allows the mobile unit to acquire timing information, provides phase reference and provides means for signal strength comparison Synchronization (channel 32) - used by mobile station to obtain identification information about cellular system Paging (channels 1 to 7) - contain messages for one or more mobile stations Traffic (channels 8 to 31 and 33 to 63) the forward channel supports 55 traffic channels

45 Forward Traffic Channel Processing Steps Speech is encoded at a rate of 8550 bps Additional bits added for error detection Data transmitted in 2-ms blocks with forward error correction provided by a convolutional encoder Data interleaved in blocks to reduce effects of errors Data bits are scrambled, serving as a privacy mask

46 Forward Traffic Channel Processing Steps (cont.) Power control information inserted into traffic channel DS-SS function spreads the 19.2 kbps to a rate of Mbps using one row of 64 x 64 Walsh matrix Digital bit stream modulated onto the carrier using QPSK modulation scheme

47 Reverse Channel The reverse channel consists of up to 94 logical CDMA channels each 1.228Mbps (32 access channel and 62 traffic channel). The randomization is very complex, it is a combination of Walsh codes, and PN sequence that is generated by a unique code word (unique for every station). Walsh matrix is used foe error control as well as improving reception.

48 ITU s View of Third- Generation Capabilities Voice quality comparable to the public switched telephone network 144 kbps data rate available to users in highspeed motor vehicles over large areas 384 kbps available to pedestrians standing or moving slowly over small areas Support for Mbps for office use Symmetrical / asymmetrical data transmission rates Support for both packet switched and circuit switched data services

49 ITU s View of Third- Generation Capabilities An adaptive interface to the Internet to reflect efficiently the common asymmetry between inbound and outbound traffic More efficient use of the available spectrum in general Support for a wide variety of mobile equipment Flexibility to allow the introduction of new services and technologies

50 Alternative Interfaces

51 3G Systems Several proposal were made for 3G One is Wideband CDMA W-CDMA, proposed by Ericsson using DSSS in a 5MHz BW. W-CDMA although it is not compatible with GSM, does allow the caller to move between GSM and W-CDMA cells. The other is CDMA2000 by Qualcomm using DSSS with 5MHz BW and is compatible with IS-95 Both agreed on a a single 3G standard with but with multiple incompatible options???

52 2.5G While waiting for the 3G to appear, many companies have taken small steps towards it. Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE), which is a GSM with more date bits per baud (more error and more error correction). General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), is an overlay packet network over D-AMPS. It allows mobile stations to send and receive IP packets (some time slots on some frequencies are reserved for that)

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