FUNDAMENTALS OF MODERN VLSI DEVICES

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1 FUNDAMENTALS OF MODERN VLSI DEVICES YUAN TAUR TAK H. MING CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

2 Physical Constants and Unit Conversions List of Symbols Preface page xi xiii xxi 1 INTRODUCTION I 1.1 Evolution of VLSI Device Technology Modern VLSI Devices Modern CMOS Transistors Modern Bipolar Transistors Scope and Brief Description of the Book 5 2 BASIC DEVICE PHYSICS Electrons and Holes in Silicon Energy Bands in Silicon n-type and p-type Silicon Carrier Transport in Silicon Basic Equations for Device Operation p-n Junctions Built-in Potential and Applied Potential Abrupt Junctions The Diode Equation Current-Voltage Characteristics Time-Dependent and Switching Characteristics Diffusion Capacitance MOS Capacitors Surface Potential: Accumulation, Depletion, and Inversion 58

3 r yfj CONTENTS Electrostatic Potential and Charge Distribution in Silicon Capacitances in an MOS Structure Polysilicon Work Function and Depletion Effects MOS Under Nonequilibrium and Gated Diodes Charge in Silicon Dioxide and at the Silicon-Oxide Interface Effect of Interface Traps and Oxide Charge on Device Characteristics High-Field Effects Impact Ionization and Avalanche Breakdown Band-to-Band Tunneling Tunneling into and Through Silicon Dioxide Injection of Hot Carriers from Silicon into Silicon Dioxide High-field Effects in Gated Diodes Dielectric Breakdown 100 Exercises MOSFET DEVICES Long-Channel MOSFETs Drain-Current Model MOSFET I-V Characteristics Subthreshold Characteristics Substrate Bias and Temperature Dependence of Threshold Voltage MOSFET Channel Mobility MOSFET Capacitances and Inversion-Layer Capacitance Effect Short-Channel MOSFETs Short-Channel Effect Velocity Saturation Channel Length Modulation Source-Drain Series Resistance MOSFET Breakdown 160 Exercises 161

4 4 CMOS DEVICE DESIGN MOSFET Scaling Constant-Field Scaling Generalized Scaling Nonscaling Effects Threshold Voltage Threshold-Voltage Requirement Nonuniform Doping Channel Profile Design Quantum Effect on Threshold Voltage Discrete Dopant Effects on Threshold Voltage MOSFET Channel Length Various Definitions of Channel Length Extraction of the Effective Channel Length Physical Meaning of Effective Channel Length 211 Exercises CMOS PERFORMANCE FACTORS Basic CMOS Circuit Elements CMOS Inverters CMOS NAND and NOR Gates Inverter and NAND Layouts Parasitic Elements Source-Drain Resistance Parasitic Capacitances Gate Resistance Interconnect R and C Sensitivity of CMOS Delay to Device Parameters Propagation Delay and Delay Equation Delay Sensitivity to Channel Width, Length, and Gate Oxide Thickness Sensitivity of Delay to Power-Supply Voltage and Threshold Voltage Sensitivity of Delay to Parasitic Resistance and Capacitance 272

5 8.3.3 Device Optimization When There Is Negligible Base Widening Device Optimization for Small Power-Delay Product Bipolar Device Optimization - An Example Bipolar Device Scaling for ECL Circuits Device Scaling Rules Limits in Bipolar Device Scaling for ECL Circuits Bipolar Device Optimization and Scaling for Analog Circuits Optimizing the Individual Parameters Technology for Analog Bipolar Devices Limits in Scaling Analog Bipolar Transistors 408 Exercises 409 Appendix 1 CMOS PROCESS FLOW 414 Appendix 2 OUTLINE OF A PROCESS FOR FABRICATING MODERN n-p-n BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS 418 Appendix 3 EFFECTIVE DENSITY OF STATES 419 Appendix 4 EINSTEIN RELATIONS 422 Appendix 5 ELECTRON-INITIATED AND HOLE-INITIATED AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN 425 Appendix 6 AN ANALYTICAL SOLUTION FOR THE SHORT-CHANNEL EFFECT IN SUBTHRESHOLD 427 Appendix 7 QUANTUM-MECHANICAL SOLUTION IN WEAK INVERSION 434 Appendix 8 DETERMINATION OF EMITTER AND BASE SERIES RESISTANCES 438 Appendix 9 INTRINSIC-BASE RESISTANCE 443 References 449 Index 461

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