GPS/GNSS Antennas. В. Rama Rao W. Kunysz R. Fante К. McDonald ARTECH HOUSE. BOSTON LONDON artechhouse.com
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1 GPS/GNSS Antennas В. Rama Rao W. Kunysz R. Fante К. McDonald ARTECH HOUSE BOSTON LONDON artechhouse.com
2 Contents Preface xv CHAPTER 1 Introduction to GNSS Antenna Performance Parameters Role of an Antenna in GNSS and its Key Requirements Summary of Satellite Navigation Systems GNSS Regional Satellite Navigation Systems Satellite-Based Augmentation Systems Polarization and Radiation Pattern of a GNSS Antenna Polarization Efficiency and Polarization Mismatch Loss Effect of Axial Ratio on the Reception of Satellite Signals by the Receiving Antenna Effect of Axial Ratio of a GNSS Antenna on Reception of Different Types of Multipath Signals Directivity and Gain of a GNSS Antenna RHCP Gain of a GNSS Antenna for an Optimum Radiation Pattern Defined by Its Low Elevation Masking Angle Relationship between Beamwidth, Aperture Size, and Directive Gain of a GNSS Antenna Effect of Minimum Gain Beamwidth and Antenna Pattern Contour on GDOP Phase Center of a GNSS Antenna Carrier Phase Windup Group Delay Variation in GNSS Antennas Requirements for Group Delay Variation with Frequency Group Delay Variation with Aspect Angle Propagation and Multipath Errors in GNSS Measurements Antenna-Induced Errors in GNSS Measurements Group Delay Error Phase Center Error Carrier Phase Windup Error Differencing Techniques for Removal of Bias Errors in GNSS Measurements 40 VII
3 VIII Contents 1.10 Differencing of GPS Data for Removal of Antenna-Induced Carrier Phase Errors Differential GPS and RTK Measurements Techniques for Removal and Estimation of Carrier Phase Windup Errors Caused by a Rotating Antenna The Susceptibility of a Commercial GPS C/A Code Receiver to Interference and Jamming LightSquared Transmissions Civil GPS Jammers Architecture of a GNSS Receiver Software Defined Radio (SDR) Effects of Interference and Jamming on Tracking Loop Thresholds of a GPS Receiver Carrier to Noise Ratio of an Antenna and Receiver Front End at "Masking Elevation" of 5 in the GPS and Galileo Frequency Bands for Quiescent Conditions (Absence of Interference or Jamming) Effective Carrier-to-Noise Ratio in the Presence of Interference or Jamming Effects of Jamming or Interference on a GPS Commercial C/A Code Receiver 58 References 59 CHAPTER 2 FRPAs and High-Gain Directional Antennas Categories of GNSS Antennas FRPA Microstrip Antennas Selection of the Dielectric Substrate for Microstrip Antennas Effects of Surface Waves on Microstrip GNSS Antennas Design of Dual-Probe-Fed RHCP Single-Band Microstrip GNSS Antenna A Parametric Study of a Single-Band RHCP Square-Shaped Microstrip Antenna GNSS Dual-Band Stacked Microstrip Patch Antennas Feed Techniques for Generating RHCP in GNSS Microstrip Antennas Circular RHCP Microstrip Antenna Annular Ring RHCP GNSS Microstrip Antenna Mutual Coupling Effects in GNSS Microstrip Antenna Phase and Group Delays in GNSS Microstrip Antennas Advantages and Disadvantages of Microstrip Antennas for GNSS Applications Quadrifilar Helix Antenna Self-Phasing QHA Externally Phased QHA 128
4 2.3.3 A Summary of the Advantages and Disadvantages of QHAs for GNSS Hexafilar Slot Antenna for GPS Planar and Drooping Bow-Tie Turnstile Antennas for GNSS End-Fire Array of Turnstile Antennas for Multipath Limitation Directional GNSS Antennas Helical Antennas Helibowl Multipath Limiting Antenna Hemispherical Helix Antenna and Its Use in a GPS Beamforming Array High-Gain Reflector Antennas for Monitoring GNSS Signals Beamforming Antenna Arrays 147 References 152 CHAPTER 3 Multiband, Handset, and Active GNSS Antennas Introduction Multiband GNSS Antennas Current and New Satellite Navigations Systems Advantages Offered by Multiple GNSS Current Technology for Multiband GNSS Antennas Performance Requirements for Geodetic-Grade Multiband GNSS Antennas Phase Center Stability Requirements and Calibration of Multiband GNSS Antennas Multipath Rejection Ratio and FBR Size and Weight Requirements for Rover Antennas Used in DGPS and RTK Geodetic-Grade Multiband GNSS Antennas Using New Ground Plane Technology Wideband 2D GNSS Cutoff and Noncutoff Corrugated Ground Planes NovAtel GNSS-750 and Leica AR25 Wideband GNSS Antenna with Hemispherical Choke-Ring Ground Plane Trimble's Zephyr Geodetic 2 GNSS Antenna with Resistivity Tapered Ground Plane Wideband and Low-Profile GNSS Antenna on an AMC/EBG Ground Plane 177,3.6 GNSS Geodetic-Grade Antennas Based on Spiral Antenna Technology Introduction to the Design of Spiral Antennas Roke Manor's GNSS Multiband Cavity-Backed Archimedean Four-Arm Spiral Antenna with a Special Ground Plane Ultrawideband GNSS Antenna Based on SMM Technology byweo NovAtel's GPS-704X Wideband GNSS Pinwheel Antenna 185
5 3.6.5 Wideband Conical Spiral Antenna for GPS and Galileo Microstrip and Other Wideband Antennas Designs for GNSS Wideband GNSS Microstrip Antenna Covering to GHz GNSS Antennas for Handset Techniques for Locating Wireless Devices Fundamentals of A-GPS Design of Handset Antennas: Requirements and Technical Challenges Size, Appearance, Cost, Weight, and Functionality Influence of Receiver Chassis on Bandwidth of Cell Phone Antennas Polarization and Radiation Pattern Requirements of GPS Cell Phone Antennas Isolation Techniques to Mitigate EMI/EMC Effects on GPS Antennas in Cell Phones User Effects on Handset Antennas Representative GPS Antenna Designs Used in Handsets Dielectric Chip GPS Handset Antennas Using Ceramic and LTCC Substrates Basic PIFA and Design Variations of a PIFA Isolated Magnetic Dipole for GPS Handsets by Ethertronics Coplanar Balanced Dipole Antenna for Handsets by Antenova Ltd Miniaturized Ceramic Loaded QHA for Handsets Active GNSS Antennas and the Use of the G/T Ratio as Its Performance Metric G/T Measurement of an Active GNSS Antenna Technique for G/T Measurement of Active GPS Antennas 221 References 222 CHAPTER 4 Adaptive GPS Antennas Introduction Two-Element Adaptive Array Theory of Operation Effect of Bandwidth and Gain for Ideal Antennas Effect of Dispersive Errors (Channel Mismatch) Effect of Multipath Space-Time Adaptive Array Introduction Calculating the Adaptive Weights Frequency-Angle Response Covariance Matrix Estimate Dual-Polarized Antenna Array Performance Measures 256
6 4.6.1 Some Traditional Measures System Performance Measures Spatial Adaptive Processor Direction Finding Array Phase Center Typical Results Effects of Temporal Taps Effects of Temporal Taps for Different Types of Jammers Effects of Jammer Spacing on Satellite Availability Maximum Number of Jammers to Null Frequency-Agile Jammers and Stale Weights 275 Bibliography 277 Endnotes 278 CHAPTER 5 Ground Plane, Aircraft Fuselage, and Other Platform Effects on GPS Antennas Introduction Microstrip Antenna on a Planar Ground Plane Planar Ground Plane Effects Mitigation of Ground Plane Effects on Performance of GPS Antennas Choke-Ring Ground Plane EBG Ground Plane Rolled Edge Ground Plane Resistivity Tapered Ground Plane Radiation Patterns of Aircraft Mounted GPS Microstrip Antennas and Verification Through Scale Model Testing Scale Model Investigations on a GPS Antenna on a Beechcraft 1900C Aircraft Validation of the Aircraft Newair Code for Predicting Antenna Patterns of Fuselage-Mounted GPS Patch Antennas Newair Analysis of GPS Antenna on a Boeing 737 Aircraft Radiation Pattern Analysis of a GPS Antenna on an Automobile Body Interaction with a Handheld GPS Antenna 307 References 307 CHAPTER 6 Measurement of the Characteristics of GNSS Antennas Introduction Radiation Pattern Measurements of GNSS Antennas Near-Field and Far-Field Regions of an Antenna Indoor Far-Field Antenna Test Ranges CATR NF-FF Antenna Test Ranges Radiation Pattern Cuts 323
7 XII Contents 6.3 Measurement of Axial Ratio of the RHCP GNSS Antenna Gain Measurement of a GNSS Antenna Two-Antenna Gain Transfer Method Three-Antennas Absolute Gain Measurement Method Near-Field Spherical Scanning Techniques for Measuring Gain Measurement of the Bandwidth of GNSS Antennas Measurement of PCO and PCV of GNSS Receiver Antennas Microwave Anechoic Chamber Method of Antenna PCV and PCO Calibration Relative Antenna Calibration by Comparison to a Reference Antenna Absolute Robot-Based Antenna Calibration Comparison of the Three Calibration Techniques for Determining PCO and PCV Automated Absolute Field Calibration of the PCV and PCO of a Satellite Transmit Antenna Using a Robot Group Delay Variation in GNSS Antennas and Its Measurement Requirements for Group Delay Variation with Frequency Group Delay Variation with Aspect Angle Measurement Techniques for Calibrating Group Delay Variation with Frequency and Aspect Angle 354 References 358 CHAPTER 7 Antennas and Site Considerations for Precise Applications Introduction Antenna and Site Dependence Multipath Effects, Monument Effects Ground Plane Effects Radome Effects Measurements and Ionospheric Modeling Phase Center Measurements Tracking Performance Measurements Perfect Antenna Pattern and Method of Realization Multipath-Limiting Antennas PCV Modeling and Measurement Methods of PCV Group Delay Variation Effects Methods of Improvement for Antenna Performance Design Stage Improvement for Antenna Performance Manufacturing Stage Improvement for Antenna Performance Field Installation Stage Improvement for Antenna Performance 384 References 384
8 Contents XIII About the Authors 387 Index 389
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