Principles of Pulse-Doppler Radar p. 1 Types of Doppler Radar p. 1 Definitions p. 5 Doppler Shift p. 5 Translation to Zero Intermediate Frequency p.

Transcription

1 Preface p. xv Principles of Pulse-Doppler Radar p. 1 Types of Doppler Radar p. 1 Definitions p. 5 Doppler Shift p. 5 Translation to Zero Intermediate Frequency p. 6 Doppler Ambiguities and Blind Speeds in Pulsed Radard p. 7 Range Ambiguities and Blind Ranges in Pulsed Radars p. 9 Fast Fourier Transform p. 10 Coherence p. 10 Spectra and Waveforms of Stationary CW Radar p. 14 Waveforms and Spectra of Stationary High-PRF Radar p. 14 Spectra and Waveforms of Stationary Low-PRF Radar p. 18 Spectra and Waveforms of Stationary Medium-PRF Radar p. 20 Effects of Platform Motion on Clutter p. 23 CW Radar Clutter Spectrum p. 25 High-PRF Radar Clutter Spectrum p. 28 Low-PRF Radar Clutter Spectrum p. 31 Medium-PRF Radar Clutter Spectrum p. 34 Calculation of Clutter Power p. 36 Spectral Characteristics of a Pulsed Waveform p. 41 Continuous-Wave Signal: One Time Scale p. 43 Single Pulse of a Carrier: Two Time Scales p. 43 Infinite Pulse Train: Three Time Scales p. 43 Finite Pulse Train: Four Time Scales p. 43 Coherent Detection of a Pulsed Waveform p. 48 Single-Channel Detection p. 52 I/Q Detection p. 55 Reference p. 62 Low-PRF Mode p. 63 Antenna Scan Patterns p. 64 Displays p. 66 Range Profile p. 69 Clutter Spectra p. 69 Low-PRF Doppler Mode p. 72 Noncoherent Modes p. 77 Ground Map p. 78 Terrain Avoidance p. 78 Air-to-Air Ranging p. 78 Air-to-Ground Ranging p. 79 Terrain Following p. 81

2 Reference p. 81 High-PRF Mode p. 83 Waveform Characteristics p. 84 Establishing the Minimum PRF p. 86 Reducing the Effects of Eclipsing p. 87 Velocity Search Mode p. 93 Range-While-Search Mode p. 95 Range Resolution p. 97 Range Quantization p. 98 Effect of Linear FM Ranging on Clutter p. 98 Range-Gated High PRF p. 98 References p. 101 Medium-PRF Mode p. 103 Waveform Characteristics p. 104 Range Profile p. 104 Doppler Profile p. 104 Range Blind Zones p. 107 Search Mode p. 112 PRF Programming p. 112 Pulse Width Diversity p. 115 Processing p. 115 Preventing False Detections of Side-Lobe Clutter p. 117 Interleaved Modes p. 119 References p. 121 Phased-Array Pulse-Doppler Radar p. 123 Introduction p. 123 Electronic Scanning p. 123 Principles of Implementation p. 123 Effects on Radar Sensitivity p. 125 Antenna Side-Lobe Suppression p. 127 Software Functional Implementation p. 129 Radar Resource Management p. 129 Search p. 132 Track p. 134 Function Interleaving and Sensor Fusion p. 135 Phased-Array Hardware Implementation p. 136 Airborne Phased-Array Implementation p. 136 Examples of Airborne Phased-Array Implementation p. 137 Motivations for Solid-State Active Array p. 138 Solid-State Array Technology p. 139 Effects on Pulse-Doppler Operation p. 142

3 Electronic Beam-Scanning Effects p. 142 Spatial/Temporal Coherence p. 144 References p. 146 Suggested Reading p. 284 Doppler Processing p. 147 Moving-Target Indication p. 148 Pulse Cancelers p. 149 Matched Filters for Clutter Suppression p. 152 Blind Speeds and Staggered PRFs p. 154 MTI Figures of Merit p. 156 Limitations to MTI Performance p. 158 Pulse-Doppler Processing p. 159 The Discrete Time Fourier Transform of a Moving Target p. 159 Sampling the DTFT: The Discrete Fourier Transform p. 162 Matched Filter and Filter Bank Interpretations of Pulse-Doppler Processing With the DFT p. 166 Fine Doppler Estimation p. 168 Additional Doppler Processing Issues p. 169 Combined MTI and Pulse-Doppler Processing p. 169 Transient Effects p. 170 Overview of Displaced Phase Center Antenna Processing p. 170 References p. 172 Pulse Compression in Pulse-Doppler Radar Systems p. 173 Introduction p. 173 Frequency Modulation Techniques p. 179 Linear Frequency Modulation p. 179 Stretch p. 183 Frequency Stepping p. 185 Phase Modulation Techniques p. 188 Barker Codes p. 191 Combined Barker Codes p. 192 Pseudorandom Codes p. 195 Golay Side-Lobe Canceling Codes p. 197 Range Side Lobes And Weighting p. 199 Side-Lobe Suppression for FM Waveforms p. 199 Side-Lobe Suppression for Phase-Modulated Waveforms p. 200 The Radar Ambiguity Function p. 201 Summary p. 211 References p. 213 Synthetic-Aperture Processing p. 215 The Synthetic-Aperture Concept p. 217 Focused Forward-Squinted Strip-Mapping SAR Characteristics p. 219

4 Geometry p. 220 Resolution vs. Aperture Time p. 221 Point Scatterer Signature p. 222 Frequency Domain Interpretation of Linear FM--Deramp SAR Data p. 224 Doppler Bandwidth p. 225 Signal-to-Noise Ratio and Pulse Repetition Frequency p. 227 Other Synthetic-Aperture Modes p. 229 Doppler Beam Sharpening and Unfocused SAR p. 229 Spotlight SAR p. 230 Implementation of Focused SAR p. 232 SAR Matched Filtering p. 232 Basic Processing Algorithms p. 234 Direct Implementation of Matched-Filter SAR Processing p. 238 Fast Correlation Cross-Range Compression p. 240 Cross-Range Compression by Deramp and Spectral Analysis p. 241 Depth of Focus p. 242 Polar Format Processing for Spotlight SAR p. 242 Interferometric Three-Dimensional SAR p. 243 Other Aspects of SAR Operation p. 246 Phase Errors and Motion Compensation p. 246 Clutter Locking and Autofocus p. 251 Speckle Reduction p. 251 Summary p. 254 References p. 254 Medium-PRF Detectability and Range Resolving p. 257 Range-Doppler Blind Zones p. 258 Effects of the Number of Clear PRFs p. 260 The Effect of the Duty Cycle p. 261 Pulse Compression p. 264 Range Resolving p. 264 Reference p. 271 Selection of the Medium PRFs p. 273 Major-Minor PRF Selection Method p. 273 Selection of the First Major PRF p. 274 Selection of the First Set of Minor PRFs p. 275 Selection of the Second Major PRF Set p. 275 Selection of the Third Major PRF Set p. 276 M:N PRF Selection Method p. 277 Other PRF Selection and Ambiguity Resolution Methods p. 279 Blind Zone Charts p. 279 Comparison of M:N With Major-Minor p. 281

5 Dwell Time Allocation p. 281 References p. 284 Suggested Reading p. 284 Tracking Techniques p. 285 Fundamentals of Angle Tracking p. 286 Amplitude Comparison p. 286 Phase Comparison p. 286 Monopulse p. 289 Clutter and Multipath Interference p. 292 Fundamentals of Range Tracking p. 294 Doppler Tracking p. 294 CW Radar p. 298 High-PRF Pulse Doppler p. 303 Range-Gated Pulse Doppler p. 304 Velocity Ambiguities p. 306 Demodulation of Angle Errors p. 307 Monopulse p. 307 Conical Scan and Lobe-on-Receive p. 308 Clutter Considerations p. 309 High-PRF Radar p. 309 Medium- and Low-PRF Radar p. 311 Control of Doppler Blind Zones p. 314 Control of Range Blind Zones in Medium-PRF p. 314 Kalman and [alpha]-[beta] Trackers p. 315 [alpha]-[beta] Tracker p. 316 Extension to Kalman Filter Notation p. 317 Compensation for Own-Vehicle Motion p. 319 References p. 322 Target Detection by Airborne Radars p. 323 Mechanization of Target Detection p. 323 Operational Considerations p. 323 Implementation of Detection Processing p. 326 Noise-Limited Target Detection p. 329 Single-Pulse Detection p. 329 Matched Filtering p. 335 Extension to Pulse-Doppler Radar Detection p. 336 The Pulse-Doppler Radar Range Equation p. 339 Target Parameters p. 341 Power Gain p. 341 System Loss Factor p. 342 System Noise Temperature p. 346

6 Application of the Radar Range Equation p. 347 Implementation of System Detection Requirements p. 353 References p. 354 Effects of Clutter on Detection Performance p. 355 Introduction p. 355 Clutter Doppler Spectrum p. 356 Calculation of Clutter Power p. 362 Clutter Models p. 365 Overview of Clutter Characteristics p. 365 Sea Clutter Model p. 366 Land Clutter Model p. 366 Performance Degradation Due to Transmitter Stability p. 367 Clutter Sideband Masking p. 367 Sources of Spurious Components p. 368 Estimation of Subclutter Visibility p. 372 Clutter-Limited Detection p. 374 References p. 375 Target Fluctuation Effects p. 377 Complex Target RCS p. 377 Fluctuation Models p. 379 Fluctuation PDFs p. 379 Extension to Pulse-Doppler Radar p. 382 Engine Modulation p. 382 Detection Performance Against Fluctuating Targets p. 384 Noncoherently Integrated Returns p. 384 Fluctuation Loss p. 387 Cumulative Detection Performance p. 388 Composite Detection Assessment p. 393 References p. 397 Automatic Detection p. 399 Automatic Detection p. 399 Automatic Detection Requirements p. 399 Automatic Detection Implementation p. 400 M:N Processing p. 404 Cell-Averaging CFAR p. 406 Ordered-Statistic CFAR Processing p. 409 Other CFAR Techniques p. 413 Distribution-Free CFAR p. 415 Statistically Adaptive CFAR Processing p. 415 Summary p. 415 References p. 416

7 Suggested Reading p. 417 Fundamentals of Electronic Counter-Countermeasures p. 419 Trends in Electronic Protection p. 420 Fundamentals of Radar Vulnerability p. 421 Terminology p. 422 Overview of ECM Techniques p. 423 Generic Radar Description p. 429 Objectives and Effects of Electronic Countermeasures p. 432 Analyzing the Effects of Electronic Countermeasures p. 435 Single-Pulse Jamming-to-Signal Ratio p. 435 Effect of Radar Signal Processing p. 437 Generic and Robust ECCM Techniques p. 438 Physical Basis for Robust ECCM Techniques p. 438 Generic ECCM Techniques p. 440 Descriptions of Significant ECCM Techniques p. 441 Acceleration Limiting p. 441 Adaptive Receive Polarization p. 442 Angle Extent Estimator p. 443 Bandwidth Expansion p. 443 Beat Frequency Detector p. 446 Censored (Ordered-Statistic) CFAR p. 446 Cross-Polarization Cancellation p. 448 Doppler-Range Rate Comparison p. 449 Frequency Agility p. 449 Home-on-Jam p. 450 Leading/Trailing Edge Track p. 450 Narrowband Doppler Noise Detector p. 451 Narrow Pulse/Pulse Compression p. 451 Neural Net p. 452 Off-Boresight Tracking p. 452 PRF Jitter p. 452 Side-Lobe Blanking p. 453 Side-Lobe Canceler p. 454 Sniff p. 455 Space Time Adaptive Processing p. 457 Superresolution p. 461 Velocity Guard Gates p. 461 VGPO Reset p. 463 VGS ECCM--Dual Frequency p. 463 References p. 464 Suggested Reading p. 464

8 Clutter Map Computer Program p. 465 Range-Doppler Blind Zone Map Computer Program p. 475 Sea Clutter Model p. 479 ECM Descriptions p. 483 Barrage Noise p. 483 Blinking Spot Noise p. 483 Blinking Cooperative Doppler Noise p. 484 Cover Pulse p. 484 Cross-Polarization Jamming p. 484 Gate Stealer/Terrain Bounce p. 485 Multiple False Doppler Targets p. 485 Narrow Band Doppler Noise p. 485 Range Gate Pull-Off p. 485 Terrain Bounce p. 486 Towed Decoy p. 486 Velocity Gate Pull-Off p. 486 Glossary p. 489 About the Editors p. 493 Index p. 495 Table of Contents provided by Blackwell's Book Services and R.R. Bowker. Used with permission.