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1 Optical fibres A thi flexible ad trasparet wire prepared for light propagatio is called optical fibre. The optical fibre has bee costructed for the followig reasos: The light wave caot traverse log distace i air without ay losses. To make loss less light wave commuicatio, the optical waves ca be guided through optical fibre. The optical fibre ca be used for the may of idustrial applicatio ad medical applicatios as well. The optical fibre cosists of two media kept oe iside the other. The cetre trasparet medium of optical fibre is called core ad the outer is claddig. The refractive idex of core will be always higher tha the refractive idex of claddig. Claddig Core Outer protective. The propagatio of light i optical fibre. The light propagates through optical fibre through Total iteral reflectio. The total iteral reflectio appears due followig reasos. Whe light traverse from optically rarer medium (like air) to deser medium (glass) the refracted ray moves towards the ormal draw o the iterface of media as i Sell s law. Coversely, if light traverse from deser to optically rarer medium, the refracted ray moves away from the ormal draw o the iterface of the medium fig.(a) If the agle of icidece icreases (fig.b), to certai value for which the refracted ray happe to be o the iterface of medium. The agle of icidece s kow as critical agle (θc)(fig.c). If the icidet agle (fig.d) icreases more tha critical agle, the the refracted ray falls o the same deser medium with o refractio. This reflectio of light is called total iteral reflectio. Thus, followig are the coditios for total iteral reflectio:

2 . The ray of light should be traverse from deser to rare medium.. The icidet agle should be more tha the Critical agle (θi >θc). Agle of Icidece Rarer ( ) Rarer ( ) M Rarer ( ) Deser ( ) (c ) Refracted ray o iterface o Deser ( ) (b) light traverse Deser to rarer Deser ( ) Agle of refractio (a) Light traverse from Rarer to deser Fig. propagatio of light from rarer to deser medium (d ) Total iteral reflectio Rarer ( ) Total iteral reflectio If the icidet ray exceeds the critical agle, the refractio would be tured i to reflectio called total iteral reflectio. The critical agle is used for the mathematical expressio to the occurrece of total iteral reflectio (fig.c) sii si90 0 (from Sell s law) si si i Sice, si 90 ο = c Sice, i c c si Therefore, to propagate the light through optical fibre, the icidet agle should be made higher tha the critical agle at various poits o the core, so that the light ca be traversed by the total iteral reflectio at those poits. To achieve the above, the size of core should be adjusted suitably which causes differet types of optical fibre based o size, (o. of modes) refractive idex ad modes of propagatio.. Classificatio I the optical fibres the materials used, refractive idex ad mode of propagatio of light are used for classificatio as follows:

3 .. Material Based optical fibres, The material based classificatio results to the followig types:. Plastic made fibres.. Glass made fibres. The plastic made fibres are obtaied from polymers of trasparet to light, flexibility ad iteractio less to light etc,. For example poly methyl metha acrylate (PMMA), polyethylee (PE), polystyree (PS) are used as core materials. Glass made fibre is also fabricated from flexible glass as core with suitable drawig techique i presece of impurities. Therefore, the above types of optical fibres are limited to some applicatio... Classificatio of optical fibres based o refractive idex The types of optical fibre ca be classified based o the refractive idex are. Step idex fibres.. Graded idex fibres. Step idex If the refractive idex of core remais the same from the cetre of the core to the corecladdig iterface; those optical fibres are kow as step idex fibres (fig.a). The distace from cetre of core to iterface of fibre vs. refractive idex is show as below: Graded idex Claddig Refractive idex Core axis Distace Fig.a Step Idex fibre profile These types are made of varyig refractive idex of core material. Therefore, the refractive idex chages with distace form the cetre of fibre to core-claddig iterface. The profile of above is as show i the fig

4 Claddig Refractive idex Core axis Distace Fig.b Graded Idex fibre profile..3 Modes of propagatio based optical fibre Based o modes of propagatio of light through core, the followig are the types of optical fibre idetified. Sigle mode fibres Multimode fibres Sigle mode fibres Cosiderig the light as electromagetic radiatio, the possible modes of propagatio are trasverse electric (TE) modes ad trasverse magetic (TM) modes. Amog them, the TE0, TE, TE0 ad TM0, TM, TM0 are possible, withi which the modes TE0 ad TM are sigificat. If the core size is adjusted to allow oly oe mode of light wave propagatio is sigle mode fibre, whose profile (fig.c) is show below: Claddig Refractive idex Core axis Distace Fig.c Sigle mode fibre profile Multi mode optical fibre If the core size has bee adjusted to allow more tha oe mode of propagatio of light wave is multimode fibre. The profile of multimode fibres is as show below:

5 Claddig Refractive idex Core axis Distace Fig.d Multi mode fibre profile Combiatio of optical fibres The refractive idex of core ad mode of propagatio of light i optical fibre is used to form combiatio types of optical fibre. Step idex-sigle mode fibres Step idex-multi mode fibres Graded idex-sigle mode fibres Graded idex-multi mode fibres.3 Parameters of optical fibres The parameters of optical fibres are: Radius of the core Numerical Aperture Acceptace agle.3. Radius of the core The size of optical fibres plays crucial role i the light wave propagatio through fibre. Therefore, radius of the core is sigificat to decide mode of propagatio i fibre. The thickess/diameter of the core ca be measured i spite of measuremet of radius. For the purpose the profile projector ca be used..3. Numerical aperture (NA) Numerical aperture (NA) is a light gatherig property of optical fibre, which gives the quatity of light that brought ito the cetre of optical fibre i terms of icidece agle. To calculate NA, cosider a logitudial sectio of fibre as i fig.(3). Let 0,, are the refractive idices of air (outside optical fibre), core ad claddig respectively.

6 θr θi A B core claddig axis o C Fig.3 Logitudial Sectio of optical fibre θi, θr are icidece agle ad refracted agle of the light through fibre. Applyig Sell s law at A 0 sii si r sii sir cos r () Applyig Sell s law at B 90 si 90 si r 0 cos r cos Substitutig () i () 0 r () si i 0 0 si i 0 NA si i or NA i 0 si (Where 0 = for air) (3).3.3 Acceptace agle It is a semi vectorial agle that formed by the set of icidet rays at the cetre of fibre, which helps to decide the size of core. From NA si i si i

7 si i Replacig si si NA a.4applicatios of optical fibres i idustry ad medicie.4. Optical fibre i commuicatio The covetioal method of commuicatio has more limitatio toward sigal security ad also affected by chage i atmospheric factors. To overcome these limitatios ad factors, te optical fibres are itroduced i commuicatio system. I optical fibre commuicatio the protocol cosist of trasmitter uit ad receivig uit i the system. The trasmitter uit The trasmitter uit cotais light source, sigal to be trasmitted, light modulator, amplifiers ad coupler. Similarly, the receiver uit cosists of couplers, light detectors, amplifiers, filters ad output device. The trasmitter uit ad receiver uit are coected by suitable optical fibre. The layout of optical fibre commuicatio is show i the fig.4 Receiver Electric trasmitter Exteral Modulator Optical coupler Photo diode Amplifier Isolator Polarizer cotrol Trasmitter laser Trasmitter Op-Isolator O/p Detector Fig.4 Optical Fibre i commuicatio System laser LP The sigal The sigal to be trasmitter ca be voice, music as audio or movie as video sigals. Geerally, the sigals will be i aalog form which ca be coverted to digital usig A/D coverters i the trasmitter.

8 The optical commuicatio system (fig) system cosist of trasmitter uit cotaiig digital source, electrical trasmitter, laser as light source, modulator ad trasmitter chael. I receivig ed, the light detector, amplifier, optical coupler ad the de modulator are available. I trasmitter, the digital sigal will be coverted i to electrical sigal, which modulates optical carrier wave through trasmitter wave by laser i terms of itesity, frequecy or phase. Modulator I the modulator the mixig of sigal with optical carrier wave takes place. The modulatio ca be Simple ON-OFF keyig (OOK) Amplitude shift keyig (ASK) Frequecy shift keyig (FSK) Phase shift keyig (PSK) Multi level modulatio keyig (MMK) The fuctio of the modulator may be electro optic or acoustic optic pheomeo. Receiver uit The output of trasmitter ca be coected to the optical fibre which eds at receiver. The receiver uit ca be two type, they are: Homodye receiver Heterodye receiver I homodye receiver, oe way commuicatio is ecouraged where as the heterodye receiver ecourages to trasmit ad receive the sigal i a sigle receiver uit. If the trasmitted sigal aloe be received through the receiver whose frequecy sychroize with the local laser frequecy, it will be homodye receiver (fs = fl). Heterodye receiver If the trasmitted sigal be received through the receiver whose frequecy does ot sychroize with the local laser frequecy, it will be heterodye receiver (fs ǂ fl). The homodye ad heterodye receivers are show i preset fig Trasmitter laser To achieve high bit rate ad log rage data trasmissio with low error rate a sigle mode trasmitter laser ca be used as i fig.5

9 Isolators There ca be udesired reflectio betwee trasmitter lasers to the exteral modulator. To avoid the cosequece as reflectio this improves laser emissio spectrum. Further, it causes quality deterioratio which causes quality of trasmissio. To avoid above, a optical isolatio is used across exteral modulator ad trasmitter laser. Exteral modulators The direct modulatio techique cotai semicoductor compoet such devices directly modulates usig ijectio curret by charge carriers i terms of itesity amplitude ad frequecy addig additioal oise. The above ca be avoided i exteral modulators..optical coupler The optical coupler mixes the receivig sigal ad local light wave from laser to improve system performace, quality of emissio spectrum of laser. This optical coupler has iputs through super imposed optical waves ad oe output to photodiode Photodiode The photo diode gives electric curret correspodig to optical iput power. Normally, PIN diodes or avalache diode (APD) are used. Amog them, the PIN diodes are sigificat due to iput optical power proportioal to square of iput electric field. It geerates electric curret proportioal to optical iput power. For the purpose PIN ad APD are used. The gai of APD is improved by performace of coheret optical radiatio PIN diodes are used i practice. As the optical power is proportioal to the square of the electric field, the superposig of two fields is liear. I photodiodes curret also cotai a immediate frequecy which referred as IF sigals. Iter mediate Frequecy (IF) filters The IF sigal, the differece of local laser frequecy ad frequecy of received light are sigificat i the preset commuicatio system. To get homodye detectio, care should be take to get phase ad frequecy to match. To get heterodye detectio, the sigal should be selected by IF filter ad the demodulated with respect to amplitude/frequecy or phase. All type of demodulator ca be used. The output of demodulator may also cotai oise which ca be elimiated by low pass filter.

10 Output device The filtered ose will be sampled ad hold receives the sigal after filter to be coected to output device..5 Some losses i optical fibres The optical fibre does ot experiece the loss i terms of itesity of light. However, the presece of impurities, scatterig at the edges, geometry of structure ad dispersio of light causes some losses. Trasmissio loss/atteuatio (α) If the itesity of light at the secod ed of the optical fibre be Iout ad itesity at first ed be Ii I The atteuatio, log I out i 0 I out I decibel the atteuatio, log db L I i Other possible losses i optical fibre The possible losses are absorptio, scatterig, radiatio losses ad geometric losses. The absorptio loss The absorptio losses appears as Extrisic losses Itrisic losses Atomic defect losses Extrisic losses The extrisic loss appears due to presece of impurities which absorbed the light. The impurities may be due to presece of Fe, Cr, Co ad Cu i the core material. The impurities could absorb the eergy that may reemit the absorbed eergy durig the de excitatio i differet wavelegth which causes loss of itesity to origial light of specific wavelegth. Itrisic loss Sice, the fibre core itself absorbs some quatity of eergy which is kow as itrisic loss.

11 Scatterig ad radiatio losses Sice, optic fibre cotais glass as core, where impurities are preset. The scatterig of light at these impurities causes Raleyeigh scatterig where the eergy of scattered wave directly proportioal to 4 th power ( E 4 ) of wavelegth. Therefore, small chage of eergy causes 4 th power of wavelegth. The loss of eergy at couplers ad iterfaces are kow as radiative losses. Geometrical loss Due to bedig of optical fibres there are types of losses from macroscopic bedig ad microscopic bedig. If the fibre be rouded as big circle of kow radius of curvature, the loss may be less called macroscopic bedig loss. For small bedig of fibre the loss of eergy i microscopic bedig is larger. Some time the irregularities i the dimesios cause geometrical losses. Dispersio loss I the trasmissio of light through optical fibres the pulse width varies due to dispersio of light through the core. The loss of itesity caused as result of dispersio of light is due to Material dispersio Waveguide dispersio Iter modal dispersio Material dispersio The refractive idex of core causes the chages i the wavelegth/frequecy called material dispersio. If arrow pulse passes trough fibre, causes broadeig of pulse width due to material property. It ca be overcome by highly moochromatic source of light. The sigle mode fibre could reduce the material dispersio to maximum extet. Waveguide dispersio The optical fibre ca be cosidered as circular wave guide where refractive idex varies with modes of propagatio with wavelegth causes wave guide dispersio.

12 Itermodal dispersio The optical power i the pulsed wave distributio over the mode of light through the fibre decreases durig the propagatio, these chages are kow as itermodal dispersio..6 Optical fibres as sesors Geerally, optic sesor cosists of light source, optical fibres ad detector. The sesors are Two types viz., active sesors ad passive sesors. The physical chages directly chages the electrical resposes called active sesors; where as the physical chages are idirectly recorded to sesig is called passive sesors. Temperature sesor The light ca be arraged to fall o reflectig surface ad the associated phase agle is be measured. The reflectig surface ca be varied usig temperature variatio, which causes additioal phase agle to light wave as see i the fig.5. Whe light throw o the reflector by optical fibre, the iitial ad fial respose ca be compared for measure of temperature by relative correlatio. Glass tube Fig.5 Temperature sesor Displacemet sesors The light is set through trasmittig fibre ad further it is allowed to fall o movig target. The light ray falls o the surface ad gets reflected. The icidet ray could mix with reflected wave ad forms stadig wave to which the phase agle shift ca be measured. The fig idicates displacemet sesors.

13 Fig.6 Displacemet sesor Optical fibres i medicie Edoscope The edoscope is a istrumet through which small surgery could be performed. The costructio details are give as i fig.7. The ray of light is obtaied usig laser the light is partially allowed to pass through optical fibre kept iside the tube as show i the figure. The output of fibre is coected to les system ad the to prism to split the object. The reflected light ca be obtaied usig polished prism ad returig ray will be visualize to get the real positio of ier orgas. Fig.7 Edoscope

14 Questio bak. What is meat by populatio iversio? (AU,Cheai,Apr009) The o. of atoms i the groud state will be more tha that the atom i the excited state ad it is called ideal state of atom. The he reverse of this a state of achievig more o. of atoms i the higher eergy level tha that of the lower eergy is called populatio iversio.. What are coheret sources? (AU Tricy Ja 00) Coheret sources are the sources which have same wavelegth ad frequecy. It has correlatio with the amplitude ad phase at ay poit with ay other poit i propagatio. 3. What are Eistei s coefficiets? (AU Ja 009) The Eistei s coefficiets A ad β accout for spotaeous ad stimulated emissio/ absorptio probabilities of light by a system of dissimilar particles. It is also explais the importace of meta stable states ad coditio for laser actio. 6. Defie meta stable state? (AU Ja 009) It is the state for which the life time of electro is more tha the excited state, i.e, it is the semi stable which lies betwee the excited state ad the lower state. 7. Distiguish betwee spotaeous ad stimulated emissio?(au,ja0,,3) The spotaeous emissio The atom i the excited state returs to groud state thereby emittig a photo without ay exteral iducemet is called spotaeous emissio. The emitted photos ca move radomly The radiatio give out so less itese ad are icoheret Photos are ot i phase The stimulate emissio A atom i the excited state is iduced to retur to groud state thereby resultig i two photos of same frequecy ad eergy is called as stimulated emissio. The emitted photos move i same directio ad they are highly directioal, the radiatio is highly itese moo chromatics ad coheret photos are i phase. 8. Defie coheret legth ad coheret time? How are they related to each other?(au003) The max. Legth up to which two wave trais have correlatios with the amplitude ad phase is called coheret legth ad the time up to which they are correlated is called coheret time they are also related as coheret legth 9. What are the characteristics of light (AU009,,3) The four importat characteristics of the laser beams are: It is highly directioal it has high itesity the beam is purely moochromatic it has coherece 0. State some of the applicatios of lasers i egieerig ad/idustry?(0) Higer power lasers are useful for blast holes, Cracks flows, blow holes etc. i the materials They are used to test the presece of pores Cracks flows, blow holes etc., i the materials they are used for weldig

15 . Classify differet types of laser with respect to active medium Gas laser-co laser(au00) Solid state laser-semicoductor laser as Ga-As Solid laser0nd-yag laser. What are the differece betwee the homo ad hetero juctio laser(009,0) Homo juctio lasers are made up of sigle crystals, power out put is low, pulsed & cotiuous ad high curret desity, The hetero juctio lasers may cotai polycrystal,power out put is high,cotiuous,low threshold curret desity 3. Give some applicatio of laser i medical field(009) Lasers are used i microsurgery ad bloodless operatios,treatmet of detached retia ad cacer treatmet 4.what are the advatages of Nd-YAG lasers?(0) Low excitatio threshold potetial,it has higher thermal coductivity tha ruby rod,high pulse repetitio rate, quasi cotiuous waves ad high efficiecy Part-B. What are Eistei coefficiets for atomic trasitio? derive relatio. Explai the priciple, structure ad workig of Nd-YAG laser with eergy level diagram 3. Describe the structure ad priciple wit workig of co laser: 4. Draw suitable diagram explai how laser actio is achieved i homo juctio ad hero juctio Ga-as laser. Optical fibre Part A. Give four applicatios of optical fibre(000). Used i displacemet sesor,. Used i the fluid level idicatio sesor 3. Pressure sesors ad 4.temperature sesors. Explai the basic priciple of optical fibre commuicatio(000) Total iteral reflectio is used i fibre optic commuicatio. Whe light travels from a deser to rarer medium at a particular agle of icidece called critical agle the ray emerges alog the surface of separatio. The agle of icidece exceeds the critcal agle the icidet ray is reflected i the same medium ad this pheomeo is called total iteral reflectio. 3. Distiguish betwee step-idex ad graded idex fibres(00,) The differece i refractive idices betwee the core ad the claddig is obtaied i a sigle step ad hece called step idex. The light ray propagate as margial rays ad pass through fibre The light rays meridia ray propagate as meridia ray propagate as medium rays ad pass thought fibre axis It follows a zig -zag light propagatio, low bad width Due to o uiform refractive idices. I their differece i refractive idices betwee the core ad the claddig, which gradually icrease from cetre towards iterface ad hece called, graded idex fibre.

16 Light propagates i the form of skew rays ad does ot cross the fibre cetre It has high value of bad width. 4. Defie acceptace agle(009) Acceptace agle is the maximum agle to the axis at which light may eter ito the fibre so that it ca have total iteral reflectio iside the fibre. 5. What is the role of claddig i a optical fibre?(009) A optical fibre cosists of core which is surrouded by claddig. Here, the role of claddig is to make the light to suffer total iteral reflectio iside the fibre. Satisfyig the coditio that light should travel from deser to rarer medium. 6. List out factors that causes loss i optical fibre(009) Durig the trasmissio of light through the optical fibre, three major losses will occur viz., atteuatio, Distortios ad dispersio, Atteuatio is maily caused due to the absorptio, scatterig ad radiatio of light iside the fibers. Distortio ad dispersio occurs due to spreadig of light ad also due to maufacturig defects. 7. What is meat by edoscope? Metio its use(00) The medical edoscope is a tubular optical istrumet used to ispect /view the iteral parts of huma body which are ot visible to the eyes ormally. The photograph of the iteral part ca also be take usig edoscope. 8. Defie umerical aperture?(0) It is light gatherig power of optical fibre. it is also measure of light that ca be accepted by the fibre 9. Give applicatios of fibre optic system/(004) It ca be used i log distace commuicatio for trasmissio lies Large o of sigal ca be accommodated. It ca be used i Local area etworks LAN ad it also be used as sesors i the devices. 0. Metio ay four advatages of optical fibre sesors(006) It could be used i exteral iterface, used i remote sesig, sigal security, compactess. Calculate the umerical aperture for the optical fibre whose core refractive idex is.5 ad claddig has.43;(00) N=.5 ad N=.43 NA=[(N) -(N) ] / = = = Calculate the acceptace agle for the fibre of NA = 0.39?(003) Acceptace agle is si (θ) = 0.39 ad θ = si - (0.39)=3 o Differetiate betwee active ad passive fibre optic sesors(007) I active sesors the physical parameter to be sesed directly acts o the fibre itself to produce the chages i the trasmissio characteristics. I extrisic sesors separate sesig elemet will be used ad the fibre will act as a guidig media to the sesors.

17 4. Metio ay four advatages of optical fibre(003) It is light weight, flexile to hadle, small i size, o iductive, o coductive ad o radiative, high bad width ca be accommodated, o sort circuit as i lie commuicatio 5. What is the coditio to the total iteral reflectio?003() Followig are the coditios for total iteral reflectio:. The ray of light should be traverse from deser to rare medium..the icidet agle should be more tha the Critical agle (θi >θc). 6. What is mode of propagatio i optical fibre(004) Cosiderig the light as electromagetic radiatio, the possible modes of propagatio are trasverse electric (TE) mode ad trasverse magetic (TM) mode. Amog them, the TE0, TE, TE0 ad TM0, TM, TM0 are possible, withi which the modes TE0 ad TM are sigificat. If the core size is adjusted to allow oly oe mode of light wave propagatio the it should be sigle mode fibre. 7. How will you classify the optical fibre (006) I the optical fibres the materials used, refractive idex ad mode of propagatio of light are used for classificatio as follows: 8 Differetiate the sigle mode ad multi mode optical fibre (00) I sigle mode oly oe mode of propagatio is possible, core size is small, ad whereas i multi mode more tha oe mode is possible core size is large. 9. What are the mai requiremets of light source used i fibre optic commuicatio(005) Light produced should be moo chromatic, it must modulate with source of light i modulator, should be high efficiecy, ad should require small power for the operatio...

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