Chapter Two. Fundamentals of Data and Signals. Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach Seventh Edition
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1 Chapter Two Fundamentals of Data and Signals Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach Seventh Edition
2 After reading this chapter, you should be able to: Distinguish between data and signals, and cite the advantages of digital data and signals over analog data and signals Identify the three basic components of a signal Discuss the bandwidth of a signal and how it relates to data transfer speed Identify signal strength and attenuation, and how they are related Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 2
3 After reading this chapter, you should be able to (continued): Outline the basic characteristics of transmitting analog data with analog signals, digital data with digital signals, digital data with analog signals, and analog data with digital signals List and draw diagrams of the basic digital encoding techniques, and explain the advantages and disadvantages of each Identify the different shift keying (modulation) techniques, and describe their advantages, disadvantages, and uses Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 3
4 After reading this chapter, you should be able to (continued): Identify the two most common digitization techniques, and describe their advantages and disadvantages Identify the different data codes and how they are used in communication systems Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 4
5 Introduction Data are entities that convey meaning (computer files, music on CD, results from a blood gas analysis machine) Signals are the electric or electromagnetic encoding of data (telephone conversation, web page download) Computer networks and data/voice communication systems transmit signals Data and signals can be analog or digital Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 5
6 Introduction (continued) Table 2-1 Four combinations of data and signals Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 6
7 Data and Signals Data are entities that convey meaning within a computer or computer system Signals are the electric or electromagnetic impulses used to encode and transmit data Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 7
8 Analog vs. Digital Data and signals can be either analog or digital Analog is a continuous waveform, with examples such as (naturally occurring) music and voice It is harder to separate noise from an analog signal than it is to separate noise from a digital signal (see the following two slides) Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 8
9 Analog vs. Digital (continued) Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 9
10 Analog vs. Digital (continued) Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 10
11 Analog vs. Digital (continued) Digital is a discrete or non-continuous waveform Something about the signal makes it obvious that the signal can only appear in a fixed number of forms (see next slide) Noise in digital signal You can still discern a high voltage from a low voltage Too much noise you cannot discern a high voltage from a low voltage Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 11
12 Analog vs. Digital (continued) Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 12
13 Analog vs. Digital (continued) Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 13
14 Analog vs. Digital (continued) Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 14
15 Fundamentals of Signals All signals have three components: Amplitude Frequency Phase Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 15
16 Fundamentals of Signals Amplitude Amplitude The height of the wave above or below a given reference point Amplitude is usually measured in volts Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 16
17 Fundamentals of Signals Amplitude Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 17
18 Fundamentals of Signals Frequency Frequency The number of times a signal makes a complete cycle within a given time frame; frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz), or cycles per second (period = 1 / frequency) Spectrum Range of frequencies that a signal spans from minimum to maximum Bandwidth Absolute value of the difference between the lowest and highest frequencies of a signal For example, consider an average voice The average voice has a frequency range of roughly 300 Hz to 3100 Hz The spectrum would be Hz The bandwidth would be 2800 Hz Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 18
19 Fundamentals of Signals Frequency Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 19
20 Fundamentals of Signals Phase Phase The position of the waveform relative to a given moment of time or relative to time zero A change in phase can be any number of angles between 0 and 360 degrees Phase changes often occur on common angles, such as 45, 90, 135, etc. Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 20
21 Fundamentals of Signals Phase Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 21
22 Fundamentals of Signals Phase If a signal can experience two different phase angles, then 1 bit can be transmitted with each signal change (each baud) If a signal can experience four different phase angles, then 2 bits can be transmitted with each signal change (each baud) Note: number of bits transmitted with each signal change = log 2 (number of different phase angles) (You can replace phase angles with amplitude levels or frequency levels ) Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 22
23 Loss of Signal Strength All signals experience loss (attenuation) Attenuation is denoted as a decibel (db) loss Decibel losses (and gains) are additive Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 23
24 Loss of Signal Strength (continued) Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 24
25 Loss of Signal Strength Formula for decibel (db): db = 10 x log 10 (P 2 / P 1 ) where P 1 is the beginning power level and P 2 is the ending power level Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 25
26 Loss of Signal Strength (continued) So if a signal loses 3 db, is that a lot? What if a signal starts at 100 watts and ends at 50 watts? What is db loss? db = 10 x log 10 (P 2 / P 1 ) db = 10 x log 10 (50 / 100) db = 10 x log 10 (0.5) db = 10 x -0.3 db = -3.0 So a 3.0 decibel loss losses half of its power Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 26
27 Converting Data into Signals There are four main combinations of data and signals: Analog data transmitted using analog signals Digital data transmitted using digital signals Digital data transmitted using discrete analog signals Analog data transmitted using digital signals Let s look at each these Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 27
28 1. Transmitting Analog Data with Analog Signals In order to transmit analog data, you can modulate the data onto a set of analog signals Broadcast radio and the older broadcast television are two very common examples of this We modulate the data onto another set of frequencies so that all the different channels can coexist at different frequencies Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 28
29 1. Transmitting Analog Data with Analog Signals (continued) Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 29
30 2. Transmitting Digital Data with Digital Signals: Digital Encoding Schemes There are numerous techniques available to convert digital data into digital signals. Let s examine five: NRZ-L NRZI Manchester Differential Manchester Bipolar AMI These are used in LANs and some telephone systems Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 30
31 2. Transmitting Digital Data with Digital Signals: Digital Encoding Schemes (continued) Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 31
32 Nonreturn to Zero Digital Encoding Schemes Nonreturn to zero-level (NRZ-L) transmits 1s as zero voltages and 0s as positive voltages Nonreturn to zero inverted (NRZI) has a voltage change at the beginning of a 1 and no voltage change at the beginning of a 0 Fundamental difference exists between NRZ-L and NRZI With NRZ-L, the receiver has to check the voltage level for each bit to determine whether the bit is a 0 or a 1, With NRZI, the receiver has to check whether there is a change at the beginning of the bit to determine if it is a 0 or a 1 Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 32
33 Manchester Digital Encoding Schemes Note how with a Differential Manchester code, every bit has at least one significant change. Some bits have two signal changes per bit (baud rate = twice bps) Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 33
34 Manchester Digital Encoding Schemes (continued) Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 34
35 Bipolar-AMI Encoding Scheme The bipolar-ami encoding scheme is unique among all the encoding schemes because it uses three voltage levels When a device transmits a binary 0, a zero voltage is transmitted When the device transmits a binary 1, either a positive voltage or a negative voltage is transmitted Which of these is transmitted depends on the binary 1 value that was last transmitted Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 35
36 4B/5B Digital Encoding Scheme Yet another encoding technique; this one converts four bits of data into five-bit quantities The five-bit quantities are unique in that no fivebit code has more than 2 consecutive zeroes The five-bit code is then transmitted using an NRZI encoded signal Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 36
37 4B/5B Digital Encoding Scheme (continued) Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 37
38 3. Transmitting Digital Data with Discrete Analog Signals Three basic techniques: Amplitude shift keying Frequency shift keying Phase shift keying One can then combine two or more of these basic techniques to form more complex modulation techniques (such as quadrature amplitude modulation) Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 38
39 Amplitude Shift Keying One amplitude encodes a 0 while another amplitude encodes a 1 (a form of amplitude modulation) Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 39
40 Amplitude Shift Keying (continued) Note: here we have four different amplitudes, so we can encode 2 bits in each signal change (bits per signal change = log 2 (amplitude levels)). Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 40
41 Frequency Shift Keying One frequency encodes a 0 while another frequency encodes a 1 (a form of frequency modulation) Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 41
42 Phase Shift Keying One phase change encodes a 0 while another phase change encodes a 1 (a form of phase modulation) Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 42
43 Phase Shift Keying (continued) Quadrature Phase Shift Keying Four different phase angles used 45 degrees 135 degrees 225 degrees 315 degrees Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 43
44 Phase Shift Keying (continued) Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 44
45 Phase Shift Keying (continued) Quadrature amplitude modulation As an example of QAM, 12 different phases are combined with two different amplitudes Since only 4 phase angles have 2 different amplitudes, there are a total of 16 combinations With 16 signal combinations, each baud equals 4 bits of information (log 2 (16) = 4, or inversely, 2 ^ 4 = 16) Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 45
46 Phase Shift Keying (continued) Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 46
47 4. Transmitting Analog Data with Digital Signals To convert analog data into a digital signal, there are two techniques: Pulse code modulation (the more common) Delta modulation Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 47
48 Pulse Code Modulation The analog waveform is sampled at specific intervals and the snapshots are converted to binary values Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 48
49 Pulse Code Modulation (continued) Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 49
50 Pulse Code Modulation (continued) When the binary values are later converted to an analog signal, a waveform similar to the original results Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 50
51 Pulse Code Modulation (continued) Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 51
52 Pulse Code Modulation (continued) The more snapshots taken in the same amount of time, or the more quantization levels, the better the resolution Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 52
53 Pulse Code Modulation (continued) Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 53
54 Pulse Code Modulation (continued) Since telephone systems digitize human voice, and since the human voice has a fairly narrow bandwidth, telephone systems can digitize voice into either 128 or 256 levels These are called quantization levels If 128 levels, then each sample is 7 bits (2 ^ 7 = 128) If 256 levels, then each sample is 8 bits (2 ^ 8 = 256) Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 54
55 Pulse Code Modulation (continued) How fast do you have to sample an input source to get a fairly accurate representation? Nyquist says 2 times the highest frequency Thus, if you want to digitize voice (4000 Hz), you need to sample at 8000 samples per second Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 55
56 Delta Modulation An analog waveform is tracked, using a binary 1 to represent a rise in voltage, and a 0 to represent a drop Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 56
57 Delta Modulation (continued) Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 57
58 The Relationship Between Frequency and Bits Per Second Higher Data Transfer Rates How do you send data faster? Use a higher frequency signal (make sure the medium can handle the higher frequency Use a higher number of signal levels In both cases, noise can be a problem Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 58
59 The Relationship Between Frequency and Bits Per Second (continued) Maximum Data Transfer Rates How do you calculate a maximum data rate? Use Shannon s equation S(f) = f x log 2 (1 + S/N) Where f = signal frequency (bandwidth), S is the signal power in watts, and N is the noise power in watts For example, what is the data rate of a 3400 Hz signal with 0.2 watts of power and watts of noise? S(f) = 3400 x log 2 ( /0.0002) = 3400 x log 2 (1001) = 3400 x 9.97 = bps Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 59
60 Data Codes The set of all textual characters or symbols and their corresponding binary patterns is called a data code There are three common data code sets: EBCDIC ASCII Unicode Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 60
61 EBCDIC Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 61
62 ASCII Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 62
63 Unicode Each character is 16 bits A large number of languages / character sets For example: T equals r equals a equals Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 63
64 Data and Signal Conversions In Action: Two Examples Let us transmit the message Sam, what time is the meeting with accounting? Hannah. This message leaves Hannah s workstation and travels across a local area network Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 64
65 Data and Signal Conversions In Action: Two Examples (continued) Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 65
66 Data and Signal Conversions In Action: Two Examples (continued) Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 66
67 Data and Signal Conversions In Action: Two Examples (continued) Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 67
68 Summary Data and signals are two basic building blocks of computer networks All data transmitted is either digital or analog Data is transmitted with a signal that can be either digital or analog All signals consist of three basic components: amplitude, frequency, and phase Two important factors affecting the transfer of a signal over a medium are noise and attenuation Four basic combinations of data and signals are possible: analog data converted to an analog signal, digital data converted to a digital signal, digital data converted to a discrete analog signal, and analog data converted to a digital signal Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 68
69 Summary (continued) To transmit analog data over an analog signal, the analog waveform of the data is combined with another analog waveform in a process known as modulation Digital data carried by digital signals is represented by digital encoding formats For digital data to be transmitted using analog signals, digital data must first undergo a process called shift keying or modulation Three basic techniques of shift keying are amplitude shift keying, frequency shift keying, and phase shift keying Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 69
70 Summary (continued) Two common techniques for converting analog data so that it may be carried over digital signals are pulse code modulation and delta modulation Data codes are necessary to transmit the letters, numbers, symbols, and control characters found in text data Three important data codes are ASCII, EBCDIC, and Unicode Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 70
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