Rainer Michalzik. Editor. VCSELs. Fundamentals, Technology and. Applications of Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Lasers

Transcription

1 Rainer Michalzik Editor VCSELs Fundamentals, Technology and Applications of Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Lasers

2 Contents Part I Basic VCSEL Characteristics 1 VCSELs: A Research Review 3 Rainer Michalzik 1.1 Research History Reflected in VCSEL Books New Developments Motivating This Book Other Research Not Covered by the Chapters The Future 12 References VCSEL Fundamentals 19 Rainer Michalzik 2.1 Introduction VCSEL Design and Operation Parameters VCSEL Types and General Properties Bragg Reflectors Relative Confinement Factor Threshold Gain and Photon Lifetime Threshold Current Matrix Method and Standing-Wave Pattern Energy Flux and Differential Quantum Efficiency Conversion Efficiency Emission Characteristics of Oxide-Confined VCSELs Device Structure Experimental Operation Characteristics Temperature Behavior Transverse Modes Dynamic and Noise Behavior Rate Equations Small-Signal Modulation Response 52 ix

3 x Contents Relative Intensity Noise Emission Linewidth VCSEL-Based Optical Interconnects Fiber Coupling Large-Signal Modulation Effects High-Speed Optical Data Transmission Conclusion 66 References 67 3 Three-Dimensional Modeling of VCSELs 77 Pierluigi Debernardi 3.1 Introduction Interplay of the Different Effects Optical Part The Coupled-Mode Approach Comparing Different Models Comparisons with Experimental Results Thermal Part Major Temperature Related Phenomena Electrical Part Approximated Current Profiles Current Leakage Rate Equations Carrier Expansion and Projection Technique Light Output Curve Computation Example of Results Model Validation Additional Examples of Numerical Results Ill 3.9 Summary 115 References Single-Mode VCSELs 119 Anders Larsson and Johan S. Gustavsson 4.1 Introduction Applications and Requirements Optical Fields and Modes in VCSELs Longitudinal Fields Transverse Fields Polarization Techniques for Single-Mode Emission Inherently Single-Mode VCSELs Single-Mode Emission from Inherently Multimode VCSELs A Specific Example 138

4 Contents xi 4.6 Summary 140 References 140 Part II Device Technology and Performance 5 Polarization Control of VCSELs 147 Johannes Michael Ostermann and Rainer Michalzik 5.1 Introduction VCSELs and Their Polarization Experimental Findings Some Theoretical Explanations Need for Polarization Control of VCSELs Approaches to Polarization Control Polarization-Dependent Gain Polarization-Dependent Mirror Asymmetric Resonators External Optical Feedback Intentional Polarization Switches Surface Gratings for Polarization Control Gratings with Wavelength-Scale Periods Sub-Material-Wavelength Surface Gratings High-Index-Contrast Subwavelength Gratings Conclusion 168 References Polarization Dynamics of VCSELs 181 Krassimir Panajotov and Franco Prati 6.1 Background Overview of the Experimental Results on Polarization Dynamics of a Solitary VCSEL _ Alignment, of Polarization Axis to [110] or [110] Axes: Elasto-Optic and Electro-Optic Effects Type I Polarization Switching Polarization Mode Hopping Type II Polarization Switching and Double Polarization Switching Impact of QW Anisotropic Strain on Polarization Switching Behavior Polarization Fluctuations and Nonlinear Birefringence and Dichroism Pitchfork Type of Polarization Switching in VCSELs

5 xii Contents Voltage Controlled Polarization Switching in Coupled-Cavity VCSELs Polarization Dynamics of Optically Pumped VCSELs Physical Mechanisms and Theoretical Modeling of Polarization Dynamics in VCSELs Polarization Bistability in Edge-Emitting Semi conductor Lasers and Gain Compression Model Different Physical Mechanisms Can Lead to Net Gain Equalization in VCSELs Polarization Dynamics in VCSELs: The Spin-Flip Model (SFM) Conclusions and Perspective Applications 223 References Design and Performance of High-Speed VCSELs 233 Yu-Chia Chang and Larry A. Coldren 7.1 Introduction Theoretical Background Intrinsic Laser Response Extrinsic Parasitic Response Design of High-Speed VCSELs Active Region Lateral Mode Confinement and Single Modeness Chip Parasitics Pad Parasitics Thermal Management Performance of High-Speed VCSELs nm VCSELs nm VCSELs urn VCSELs Long-Wavelength VCSELs Loss-Modulated High-Speed VCSELs Principle of Operation VCSELs with an Electroabsorption Modulator VCSELs with an Electrooptical Modulator Conclusion 257 References High-Power VCSEL Arrays 263 Jean-Francois P. Seurin 8.1 Introduction Development of High-Efficiency VCSEL Devices 266

6 Contents xiii Device Structure and Fabrication Results and Discussion D VCSEL Array Fabrication Results High-Brightness VCSEL Arrays High-Energy VCSEL Arrays VCSEL-Based Active Q-Switch Short Pulse VCSEL Array Modules Conclusions 286 References High-Contrast Grating VCSELs 291 Connie J. Chang-Hasnain 9.1 Introduction High-Contrast Subwavelength Grating (HCG) HCG as Broadband Reflector Physics of HCG HCG-VCSEL Design and Fabrication Optical Characteristics of HCG-VCSEL Light-Current and Near Field Characteristics Lithographically-Defined Polarization Control Transverse Mode Control HCG Size Dependence Fabrication Tolerance Lithographically-Defined Multi-Wavelength HCG-VCSELs Tunable HCG-VCSELs Design and Fabrication Characteristics of Tunable HCG-VCSEL Summary 313 References 314 Part III From Infrared to Violet Emission 10 Long-Wavelength VCSELs with Buried Tunnel Junction 321 Markus Ortsiefer, Werner Hofmann, Jtirgen Rosskopf and Markus-Christian Amann 10.1 Special Issues for Long-Wavelength VCSELs The Buried Tunnel Junction Concept Device Structures and Characteristics InP-Based VCSELs GaSb-Based VCSELs Applications Optical Communication VCSEL-Based Optical Gas Sensing 346

7 xiv Contents 10.5 Conclusion 348 References GalnNAs(Sb) Long-Wavelength VCSELs 353 James S. Harris, Hopil Bae and Tomas Sarmiento 11.1 Introduction Growth Issues of GalnNAs(Sb) urn GalnNAs VCSELs u.m GalnNAsSb VCSELs Summary 369 References Red Emitting VCSEL 379 Michael Jetter, Robert RoBbach and Peter Michler 12.1 Introduction VCSEL Structure AlGalnP Active Zone Distributed Bragg Reflectors Oxide Aperture In-Situ Reflection Measurement Device Characteristics of Red VCSEL Heat Dissipation Model High Temperature Results Modulation Bandwidth Modulation Limits Data Transmission Reliability Quantum Dot Based Red Emitting VCSEL Conclusion Outlook 396 References GaN-Based VCSELs 403 Shing-Chung Wang, Tien-Chang Lu, Hao-Chung Kuo and Jun-Rong Chen 13.1 Introduction Design and Fabrication of GaN-Based VCSELs Optically Pumped GaN-Based VCSELs Hybrid DBR VCSEL Dielectric DBR VCSEL Electrically Pumped GaN-Based VCSELs Hybrid DBR VCSEL Dielectric DBR VCSEL Future Perspectives 423

8 Contents xv 13.6 Summary 423 References 424 Part IV VCSEL Applications 14 VCSEL-Based Transceivers for Data Communications 431 Kenneth P. Jackson and Clint L. Schow 14.1 Introduction Early Datacom Transceivers The Need for VCSELs VCSEL Technology and the Drive for Lower Costs Today's VCSEL-Based Transceivers Future of VCSEL-Based Transceivers 444 References Low-Cost Optical Video Links Based on VCSELs 449 Hyun-Kuk Shin 15.1 Introduction Optical Video Link Modules for DVI and HDMI VCSEL in Display Interconnection Module Applications of Optical Video Links Train Display System Elevator System Medical Application Reduction of the Number of Fibers Optical Video Link for a Mass Market Conclusion 470 References Progress in VCSEL-Based Parallel Links 473 Daniel M. Kuchta 16.1 Introduction Commercial VCSEL-based Parallel Links Since Research Activities in VCSEL-Based Parallel Links Deployment of Parallel Links in Large Systems and Test Beds Fibers and Connectors for Parallel Links Reliability for Parallel Links Outlook 510 References 512

9 xvi Contents 17 VCSELs for Optical Mice and Sensing 521 Martin Grabherr, Holger Moench and Armand Pruijmboom 17.1 Introduction VCSELs as Ideal Illumination Source for the Optical Mouse General Requirements and Benefits of VCSELs Over Edge Emitters VCSEL Production and Typical Characteristics Polarization Stabilization SMI Laser Doppler Interferometry Velocity Measurement Direction of Motion and Distance VCSEL as Integrated Laser Doppler Interferometer VCSEL with Integrated Photodiode Single-Mode VCSEL dk/dl Requirements Philips "Twin-Eye" Product More SMI Applications Summary 537 References VCSEL-Based Laser Printing System 539 Nobuaki Ueki and Naotaka Mukoyama 18.1 Introduction VCSELs for Printer Applications Structure and Characteristics of VCSEL Array VCSEL Driver IC Image Quality VCSEL-Based Printer Products Summary 548 References 548 Index 549