Application of Cognitive Radio Techniques to Satellite Communication

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1 2012 IEEE International Symposium on Dynamic Spectrum Access Networks Application of Cognitive Radio Techniques to Satellite Communication Marko Höyhtyä 1, Jukka Kyröläinen 2, Ari Hulkkonen 2, Juha Ylitalo 2, and Antti Roivainen 3 1 VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, Kaitoväylä 1, Oulu, Finland 2 Elektrobit Wireless Communications Ltd, Tutkijantie 7, Oulu, Finland 3 Centre for Wireless Communications, P.O. Box 4500, FI University of Oulu, Finland Abstract Applicability of cognitive radio (CR) techniques to satellite communications is investigated and classification for the possible applications is foreseen in this paper. The proposed application scenarios include a) secondary use of satellite spectrum by a terrestrial system, b) secondary use of terrestrial spectrum by a satellite system, and c) a hybrid scenario where terrestrial network coverage is expanded by the use of satellite spots. Key challenges and enabling technologies for each scenario are discussed. Link budget analyses and system simulations are used to define operational limits for interference management in the mentioned scenarios regarding spectrum sensing, transmission power control, and directional antennas. The results show that CR techniques should be applied with caution in satellite bands. However, obvious potential to improve the spectrum efficiency can be seen in each scenario. Keywords-hybrid terrestrial satellite systems; dynamic spectrum access; secondary spectrum use; I. INTRODUCTION Cognitive radio systems obtain information about environment to adjust their operation adaptively to provide required services to end users. Regarding spectrum use, future wireless systems equipped with cognitive radio capabilities could dynamically access new frequency bands and at the same time protect higher priority users on the same bands from harmful interference [1]. For future mobile communication systems, cognitive radio techniques present a promising opportunity for cost-efficient access to spectrum bands to meet the growing user demand. Emergence of CR techniques, especially in terrestrial domain, has played a significant role in wireless research recently. Focus in the CR research has remained strongly in terrestrial networks. Satellite communications area has not been much explored in the CR literature. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the possibilities to use CR techniques in satellite communications in a wide scale, to define several application scenarios, and to provide initial results for the operation regarding each scenario. Cognitive radio techniques can be applied in satellite communication systems in several different ways. Secondary system can operate at satellite bands using cognitive principles to avoid interfering with the primary satellite system. The satellite system itself can be made more intelligent by applying the cognitive techniques in it. It is even possible that the satellite system has an access to a band used by another communication system and operates as a secondary user in that band. We have divided the work into three main research topics to obtain a thorough view on the CR application possibilities: 1) Broadcasting services below 3 GHz: Secondary spectrum use scenario. This scenario describes the secondary system that could operate at the same frequency range than a primary digital video broadcasting satellite for handheld (DVB-SH) system. The satellite system is a broadcasting satellite services (BSS) located at the geosynchronous earth orbit (GEO), other orbits are also possible. 2) Fixed Satellite Services above 3 GHz: Terrestrial fixed services (FS) as a primary user scenario. The work here focuses on higher carrier frequencies. The terrestrial FS system operates a primary user of the spectrum and the fixed satellite services (FSS) satellite is using secondary access in the same band. FSS satellite is most probably located at the GEO orbit but low earth orbit (LEO) is possible, too. 3) Mobile 2-way communication Satellite Services below 3 GHz: overlay scenario. This scenario focuses on extension of primary terrestrial system with a satellite to the rural, low populated areas where building of the terrestrial network might be too expensive. The mobile satellite services (MSS) satellite is located either in LEO or GEO orbit. The proposed scenarios cover the satellite communication below 3 GHz and above 3 GHz frequency bands; MSS, BSS, and FSS as well as different orbits are covered. We will investigate the requrements and possibilities for cognitive radio techniques in each scenario, taking into account the specific features of these satellite systems. Thus, the paper provides a wide view on the application possibilities for CR techniques in the satcom area. The organization of the paper is as follows. Overview of satellite bands is presented in Section II and related differencies between satellite bands and popular TV band are discussed. Related work is presented in Section III. Section IV provides classification for application scenarios. Detailed application scenarios with achieved results concerning e.g., interference management issues are presented in Section V. Future directions are discussed in Section VI and finally the paper is concluded in Section VII. This work has been performed in the framework of the ACROSS project, which is funded by European Space Agency (ESA). The ESTEC contract number of the activity is /11/NL/NR. The work has also been supported by the SANTA CLOUDS project, which is partly funded by the Finnish Funding Agency of Technology and Innovation, decision number 40196/ /12/$ IEEE 517

2 II. OVERVIEW OF THE SATELLITE BANDS Use of cognitive radio principles with satellite systems requires inclusion of both terrestrial and satellite channels. Channel models depend on the frequency band (as well as bandwidth), elevation angles, and the user environments. Frequency allocations for FSS, MSS, and BSS are shown in Table I for uplink (UL) and downlink (DL) frequencies. Table I. Typical frequency band allocation for FSS, MSS and BSS. Service type Freq. bands for UL/DL Usual terminology Fixed satellite services (FSS) Mobile satellite services (MSS) Broadcasting satellite services (BSS) 6/4 GHz 8/7 GHz 14/12-11 GHz 30/20 GHz 50/40 GHz 1.6/1.5 GHz 2/2.2 GHz 30/20 GHz 2/2.2 GHz 12 GHz 2.6/2.5 GHz C band X band Ku band Ka band V band L band S band Ka band S band Ku band S band The link is assumed line-of-sight for the FSS systems and for the service between the terrestrial gateway and the satellite both in the MSS and in the BSS systems where higher frequncies are applied. Shadowing due to the blocking effect by trees and buildings and multipath fading should be considered for L- and S-bands applied in the MSS and BSS (e.g. DVB-SH), especially when the terrestrial component between the gateway and the receiving device is considered. The attenuation caused by the precipitation, e.g. rain and clouds, in the troposphere is neglected if the applied frequency is lower than X band but the attenuation is strong in Ku, Ka, and V bands [2]. FSS signal is affected also by tropospheric scintillation. It is observed as rapid variations of the signal strength which results from small-scale fluctuations in air density usually related to temperature gradients. The effect is greatest at small elevation angles. Thus, the characteristics of the satellite bands and channel models are clearly different than in the popular TV band (from 54 to 862 MHz) that has been considered for CR operation. FCC has adopted rules that allow unlicensed radio transmitters to operate in the broadcast television spectrum at locations where the spectrum is not used by licensed services [3]. TV band devices cannot be used exactly the same way in the satellite bands. All the restrictions including time and transmission power limits are designed for the TV band operation with terrestrial radio towers and rather low carrier frequencies. In order to be used for satellite band operation, very thorough analysis and redesign are needed. Satellite footprints, locations of earth stations, used frequency bands, satellite orbits, mobility of receivers etc. all have an impact that need to be considered before rules for satellite band operation can be set. III. RELATED WORK Spectrum sharing with satellites has been discussed by regulation authorities actively. Recent discussions cover WiMAX and IMT-Advanced system studies [4], [5]. Satellite Users Interference Reduction Group concluded in their test [4] that: Taking into account the two test analyses, from a flat non-blocking terrain to a wooded hilly terrain, the results conclusively show that the criteria where FSS antennas cannot co-exist with WiMAX systems range from 50 to over 200 km dependent upon the local terrain. Different kind of ranges can be seen in [5] where e.g., use of adaptive antennas is shown to greatly decrease the range requirements. Mostly when satellites are discussed in conjunction with the cognitive radios, discussion is about geolocation services. Shared spectrum use is not covered well at all. Mitola stated that satellites and aircraft move rapidly and/or cover large areas, so the bands dedicated to these vehicles would not be pooled [6]. This means that satellites should always have primary access to spectrum. However, it is shown in [7] that cyclostationary features of satellite signals help to operate as a secondary user in the same spectrum. Cyclostationarity affects both the secondary signal design and reliable detection of the satellite signals. An initial study on the use of orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM)-based cognitive radios with mobile DVB-SH satellites is given in [8]. A recent study defines the concept of cognitive satellite terrestrial radios, focusing on two different scenarios [9]. One is a hybrid satellite-terrestrial system for wide regional area networks (WRAN) operating in the TV bands between 54 MHz and 862 MHz. Another is a personal area network (PAN) scenario based on ultra wideband (UWB) systems operating in the 3.1 GHz 10.6 GHz band. Satellites are used to connect the terrestrial cells, which are operating as secondary users of the spectrum, to each other. Base station, or in the PAN scenario info-station, sends uplink data towards satellite. Downlink data are in both scenarios received by the base stations and info stations. In the WRAN scenario also the nodes in the network can receive downlink information. The paper also discusses the spectrum sharing in the uplink channel from the spectrum sensing point of view. The same kind of satellite assistance to the IEEE WRAN architecture is also proposed in [10]. In that architecture, the satellite is the central controller; i.e., it is in charge of the spectrum allocation and management. IV. APPLICATION SCENARIOS We have divided the area into four main application scenarios as depicted in Figure 1. First two areas can be seen as traditional cognitive radio areas focusing mostly on spectrum issues whereas cognition is used in a different way in the other two scenarios. However, some ideas can be also combined together. For example, knowledge of other resources in the network such as battery levels or even weather conditions might have an effect in the use of the spectrum resources and devices in the area of interest. The main features of the proposed application scenarios are: 518

3 Figure 1. Application areas for CR techniques. 1) Secondary use of satellite spectrum by terrestrial systems. Satellite spectrum is not used efficiently all the time in any location. There are geographical areas where some satellite channels may be not used at all almost all the time. If these channels would be used for secondary terrestrial communications, a large capacity boost could be achieved and a variety of different services could be offered to the wireless users operating in the same area. In practice, several secondary networks can be located inside a satellite footprint that covers a large geographical area. From the technical viewpoint the spectrum sharing provides many challenges. First of all, sensitive satellite receivers need to be protected from the interference. Either the secondary system has to transmit at different times than the primary system or the transmission power has to be limited in order to avoid interfering with the primary satellite transmission. For that purpose, a spectrum use pattern needs to be obtained. The spectrum use pattern is a pattern that shows which frequencies are occupied and which frequencies are available for secondary use in a band of interest at a particular geographic location and at a particular time. Interference tolerance of the satellite receivers needs to be evaluated in order to protect them. Since active spectrum sensing only tells the situation in the vicinity of the sensor, the transmission power of the secondary system has to be controlled based on the knowledge of the primary transmission, interference tolerance of the receivers and the performance of sensing. Both passive and active spectrum awareness methods are needed to be investigated in more detail in the future. In addition, use of cognitive techniques like adaptive antennas might enable simultaneous operation of primary and secondary systems using even the same frequencies. This might require location knowledge devices to be able to direct strong transmission beam towards the secondary receiver while setting nulls toward primary receivers. 2) Satellite system as a secondary user of the spectrum. This scenario takes an opposite view to the previous one. The satellite system would operate in the band where the terrestrial system is the primary user. Even though the idea might sound really challenging in the beginning since the footprint of the satellite is really large, covering easily huge amount of possible primary terrestrial nodes, in some frequency bands the idea is worth investigating. Especially Ka band seems to provide a useful scenario for the proposed work. The FSS satellite system is the secondary system using the frequencies of the primary Fixed Services (FS) system. Instead of only utilizing the time and frequency slots where primary system is not operating, the main idea here is to utilize spatial resources. Using highly directional antennas the interference between the systems can be kept low enough. In an optimal situation, all the locations of the victim receivers would be known. 3) Extension of a terrestrial network using a satellite system. A satellite network can be utilized to provide support to a terrestrial mobile network, especially in the areas, where the mobile coverage is not sufficient or it does not exist at all. These areas include seas, polar areas, deserts, and other very sparsely populated areas. The idea is to get these areas covered by providing the same services via a satellite as in the terrestrial network. In a wider perspective, this scenario includes all the hybrid terrestrial-satellite systems that are using cognitive principles. The satellite assistance principle discussed in Section II belongs to this category. Several challenges exist when both systems are providing coverage to same users. In case of LEO satellite system with enhanced antenna cababilities, even relatively small regions between terrestrial cells could be covered by the satellite beams. The network configuration of a hybrid system may apply either a single frequency network (SFN) concept, where the terrestrial network and the satellite network share exactly the same frequencies, or a multifrequency network (MFN) concept where the satellite network operates at a different frequency band than the terrestrial network. The satellite spots may be overlapping with the terrestrial cells, but in case of the SFN configuration, it may be necessary to avoid the overlapping as much as possible. The satellite segment might or might not use the same modulation or air interface technology. The interference management is critical with this approach, especially in case of the SFN configuration. 4) Wider cognition and use of resources in the network. In addition to spectrum, awareness and optimized use of other resources, such as energy, are part of the cognition. Broader cognition could include e.g., the use of location information and the spatial re-use scheme. Moreover, additional intelligence could be included in a satellite so that it could employ information about the environment and the data it is sending. This kind of awareness could enable more efficient 519

4 use of resources throughout the system. As an example, the following approach could be used: Use of sensor information of terrestrial devices and adaptation of the satellite network using that information. There are many possibilities in this area. For example, weather sensors could be used in assisting the resource management of a satellite system. When higher frequencies are utilized, tropospheric effects have significant effect on the radio wave propagation. Knowing the exact weather conditions such as rain rate and humidity might provide very useful tools from the system management point of view. This proposed approach can be seen as one interesting way to implement the cognitive principles. In the following section, we define a detailed application scenario related to the specific satellite system for the first three main scenarios and provide some numerical results related to each of them. V. PROPOSED DETAILED SCENARIOS FOR SATCOM This section provides detailed scenario descriptions with the main results for the given study. In subsection IV.A sensing requirements and sensing method selection are investigated for the satellite downlink signal. In subsection IV.B the focus is in the investigation of interference between the satellite and terrestrial systems when directed antennas are applied. Finally, in subsection IV.C the study concentrates on the terrestrial network interference tolerance in order to determine transmission requirements for the satellite system that is coexisting in the same spectrum. A. Broadcasting services below 3 GHz: Secondary spectrum use scenario. The secondary use of the satellite spectrum is most probably the first application area coming into mind for any wireless researcher working in the field. Figure 2 presents the secondary spectrum use scenario when the primary user is a GEO-based DVB-SH satellite system. The primary system architecture is a hybrid architecture combining a satellite component and where necessary, terrestrial repeaters to complement reception in areas where the satellite coverage is not satisfactory. Repeaters may send information from the content or from the satellite signal. The system can transmit either OFDM or time-division multiplexing (TDM) signal over the satellite link or OFDM signal over the terrestrial link. The frequency band is the S band between 2.17 GHz and 2.2 GHz. The terrestrial secondary network operates in the same frequency area using the resources that are available, without interfering with the primary satellite system. The secondary network needs to obtain spectrum awareness and uses either spectrum sensing or database access to the spectrum that it is using at times and locations where the primary user is not present. Database can be seen as the primary way of obtaining spectrum awareness when possible. In a satellite system using geostationary satellites the database is easier to keep up to date than with a LEO/MEO MSS system. In the latter the update of the database is much more dynamic. The satellites are moving, their spots cover different areas, new satellites come to the Figure 2. A secondary spectrum use scenario with a DVB satellite. view and others are leaving. Thus, a dynamic database is needed in this case. That makes the use of the database challenging, especially with the systems used nowadays. If a cognitive radio system is operated with the primary systems that are active, it needs to obtain the spectrum awareness information by spectrum sensing. A cyclostationary detector can achieve robust sensing in low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) area by utilizing multiple cyclic frequencies of OFDM signals used in many DTV signals, such as DVB-T. There exists a fundamental limit called SNR wall when detecting signals in low SNR regime [11]. This wall exists with practical systems because of thermal noise. Below the wall a detector will fail to be robust, no matter how long it can observe the channel. The SNR wall for energy detection is 3.3 db when the noise uncertainty is 1 db. Since it is difficult to locate primary receivers nearby without any change to the primary system, the transmission power of the secondary user (SU) should be limited in a way that primary receivers in the edge of the communication range of the primary user (PU) do not experience more interference than they can tolerate. In reality, neither sensing nor interference ranges around transceivers form circles. There is significant variation in these ranges due to radio channel effects such as varying path loss, shadowing and fading. Thus, in the estimation process fading margins are needed to guarantee the required protection for the primary receivers. Figure 3 describes the spectrum sensing task inside a satellite spot both for the terrestrial signal sent by the DVB-SH repeater, and for the satellite signal. Sensing can be performed either via mobile devices or with high-gain fixed sensing stations. Signal level to be detected by the spectrum sensor is P S = EIRP path losses + G R, (1) where EIRP = P tx + G tx OBO and G R is the antenna gain of the sensing device. OBO is the output backoff of the satellite power amplifier and G tx is the gain of the transmitter antenna. Here path losses include shadowing and fading. Thus, a fading margin is needed for reliable sensing, especially when the 520

5 detection. Even if theoretical values slightly below noise floor could be achieved the sensing device is required to have LOS link to satellite. Shadowing causes immediate problems. Figure 3. Spectrum sensing of A) terrestrial signal and B) satellite downlink signal inside the satellite spot. sensing device is mobile and can be shadowed e.g., by trees, tall buildings, or even low buildings in the case of low satellite elevation angle. Energy detection can be used to detect any signals in the band in a rapid manner. However, it is not the best method in a low SNR regime. The limitations of real energy detection equipments have been reported in the literature. For example, the article [12] reports that the sensing threshold of a commercial sensor they are using is 10 db above the noise floor. The noise figure of the sensor raises the threshold in these devices. Actually the 10 db level above the noise floor gives a rather sensitive threshold. Very low threshold values cause a lot of false alarms, i.e., the sensor claims that there is a user in the band even if there is no user at all. In addition, lower value detection requires longer integration time. Results We calculated a sensing link budget for downlink signal assuming 2 db OBO for the satellite transponder. The link budget is presented in Table II. We can see that when the threshold is 10 db above the noise floor, only medium powered 68 dbw DVB-SH satellites [13] can be detected with a portable device if no fading is allowed. The detection is not reliable even if only small fading occurs in the channel. The requirement can be written as: maximum allowable fading is: M max = P T, (2) where P is the received signal power level without fading and T is the detection threshold in dbm. Thus, an energy detector with a threshold 10 db above noise floor cannot detect the signal transmitted from a 63 dbw satellite. In addition, the maximum allowable fading M max with this detector is only 1.4 db (i.e., M max = 11.4 db 10 db) and 1.28 db for a medium powered satellite transmission with SH-A and SH-B modes. Since the secondary user needs to have reliable spectrum awareness infromation available to avoid interfering with the primary users, the spectrum sensing cannot be seen totally dependent on portable sensing devices that are using energy Table II. Spectrum sensing link budget for satellite downlink. Unit SH-A, 63 dbw satellite SH-A, 68 dbw satellite SH-B, 63 dbw satellite SH-B, 68 dbw satellite EIRP dbm Path losses, no db fading Fading db M M M M Noise level dbm P S dbm Mobile sensor values: Antenna gain db Signal above noise level, no db fading Signal above noise level, fading included Fixed sensor results: Paraboloidal antenna, gain Signal above noise level, no fading Signal above noise level, fading included db 6.4 M 11.4 M 6.28 M M db db db 31.4 M 36.4 M M M The situation is clearly better if the sensing is performed using separate sensing stations with high gain antennas. Even if the sensing threshold would be 10 db above noise floor, the fading margin would be over 20 db which is clearly enough. Antenna pointing loss, rain and other losses can be several decibels but a fixed sensing station that would be located in a good place outdoors should be able to give reliable spectrum occupancy information regarding DVB-SH satellite downlink transmission in the S band. Of course, the high gain antenna requires knowledge on which direction to sense. When feature detection is applied in detection, reliable sensing of DVB-T signals can be achieved at SNR= 20dB even with a hardware implementation [14]. Matched filter detection can provide even better performance if the signal to be detected is known. The method seems to be very promising for the satellite DVB-SH signal detection as well. Assuming that the sensor can detect signals db below noise floor, also portable sensing devices might be feasible. Portable sensing devices can be used only if the sensing method itself is good enough. Feature detection and especially matched filter detection can provide enough performance to detect reliably the satellite downlink signal, even by portable devices. If the energy detection is used for the same purpose, separate sensing stations with high gain antennas are required. 521

6 Figure 4. Spectrum sharing in Ka band: FS service as primary and FSS services as secondary. Figure 5. Interference links between FS and FSS stations. B. Fixed Satellite Services above 3 GHz: FS as a primary user scenario. This scenario takes an opposite view to the previous one. The FSS satellite system is the secondary system using the frequencies of the primary Fixed Services (FS) system. The FSS uplink is assumed to operate at GHz frequency range and the downlink at GHz frequency range. These bands are assumed to be utilized by terrestrial microwave links (FS-links) as a primary user. The frequency band GHz is designated for the use of uncoordinated FSS earth stations without prejudice to the FS systems licensed in this band in some countries. Band GHz is available for uncoordinated FSS earth stations (downlink), but must take into account the interference from fixed links. The number of FS links on this frequency band is about 83,000 throughout European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications administrations (CEPT) and this number is expected to grow significantly [15]. Figure 4 shows the basic scenario for the studies. One satellite spot can cover several FS links that are operating in the same frequency band. High-gain parabolic antennas are applied both in terrestrial and satellite antenna links because of long link distances. Terrestrial use is restricted to horizontal pointto-point microwave links with very narrow beams. FSS uplinks are also narrow beam line-of-sight links but have typical elevation angle of deg in Europe. Static/nomadic user terminals are applied in a way that enables accurate TX/RX beam direction tracking towards the satellite. The K/Ka links are very sensitive to rain which may prevent reliable service in extreme cases. Link margins are needed to compensate some degree of signal attenuation due to rain. Satellite service earth stations on mobile platforms (ESOMP) should be able to operate on licence-exempt basis. The ESOMP may be considered as a special case of FSS station and the same rules for the spectrum sharing apply for the mobile stations as for the fixed stations. The prerequisite for the coexistence of the FSS links at overlapping frequency bands with FS-links is that the interference caused by FSS system is limited to a tolerable level at the FS-receiver. Therefore the main issue to study in this scenario is the interference between the FSS and FS terminals. The interference scenario is presented in Figure 5. The tolerable interference level at FS receiver may be evaluated according to the ITU-R SF 1006 [16], which provides a calculation method and parameters for interference tolerance of the FS-receiver for the FSS-ground station transmsission (at GHz). Calculation provides the maximum interference entry that is allowed for one interferer. The effective number of expected simultaneous equal-level interference contributions (n 1 near-by interferers) was set to 10 and the number of distant (n 2 ) interferers was set to 1. With these assumptions, the maximum permissible interference power not to exceed for 20 % of time at the FS receiver is dbw/mhz. This is taken as an approximation of median interference power, and is used here in conjunction with median path loss to estimate the required transmission loss, and respectively, the required distance, to attenuate the interference to an acceptable level. The transmission loss is the loss from the transmitter antenna input to the receiver antenna output, i.e. it includes the propagation loss and antenna responses corresponding to the link direction. The short term interference not to exceed for % of time is dbw/mhz. If the FSS-ground-station transmission power is limited to 2.9 dbw at 1 MHz bandwidth, the required transmission loss between the FSS- and FS-stations would be 145 db. The path loss models recommended by ITU-R are great circle models intended for large distances. We present a slightly different approach for the interference link path loss calculation. The aim of this study is to use cognition to allow uncoordinated operation of FSS-subscribers at the overlapping frequencies in, as close as possible, proximity to the FS-station. 522

7 y, Distance from FS-receiver [km] Transmission Gain (propagation + antennas) [db], Satellite Elevation = 15 deg, Satellite Azimuth = 180 deg FS-Antenna Boresight FSS-Antenna Boresight x, Distance from FS-receiver [km] Figure 6. Transmission loss for FSS to FS link at 15 deg elevation, azimuth angle = 180. Therefore, the typical trans-horizon link phenomenas such as ducting and tropospheric scattering can be neglected. The precipitation effects due to rain would increase the path loss of interference link, but our approach is to perform the calculations for the worst case intereference conditions, i.e. under clear sky. Neglecting the ducting and tropospheric scattering, and modifying the ITU-R P.452 [17] path loss model accordingly, the path loss at distance d for such model can be written as L(p) = log f + 20 log d + L d (p) + A g + A h, (3) where L d (p) refers to diffraction loss, p refers to probability for path loss not to exceed for p % of time and A g refers to gaseous absorbtion attenuation, which consists of attenuation due to dry air and water vapour. Parameter A h is the height-gain model loss. A default water vapour density of 3 g/m3 was used in the calculations. The diffraction loss was taken into account by using a spherical earth model described in ITU-R P.526 [18]. The local clutter provides additional shielding from interference and plays an important role especially over nontrans horizon links. The height-gain model has been applied for the FSS-ground station to add shielding loss provided by the clutter. 11 different clutter categories are defined in ITU-R P.452. The first category, providing least clutter loss, was selected for the path loss calculation. Figure 6 and Figure 7 show the simulated transmission gain contours for different satellite azimuth angles at elevation of 15. Interference scenario 1) from the Figure 5 is considered. The FS-receiver is located in the centre of the coordinate system (x = 0, y = 0) and the transmission gains to all possible locations of FSS-transmitter are calculated. The geometry is based on flat earth approximation, which is valid over short distances, and the antenna pointing directions and radiation patterns are applied in the calculation. The antenna pattern of FS-receiver was set according to ITU-R F.699 [19] with 36 dbi gain and the off-axis antenna pattern of FSS-transmitter was set according to ITU-R S.1855 y, Distance from FS-receiver [km] Transmission Gain (propagation + antennas) [db], Satellite Elevation = 15 deg, Satellite Azimuth = 120 deg FS-Antenna Boresight FSS-Antenna Boresight x, Distance from FS-receiver [km] Figure 7. Transmission loss for FSS to FS link at 15 deg elevation, azimuth angle = 120. [20] with 0.6 m diameter. The main lobe pattern of FSStransmitter was set according to ITU-R F.699. Rotationally symmetric antenna patterns were assumed. The boresight directions of the FS antenna and the FSS antennas in azimuth plane are marked with red arrows in the figures and the elevation of the FS antenna is set to zero. The FS-receiver height was 40 m and the FSS-transmitter height was 2 m. To achieve the required 145 db transmission loss, 145 db transmission gain is required. The 145 db contour in the figures indicates the limit for the area for the FSS ground station to operate. Inside this contour the interference caused to FS station is too high, i.e., the FSS station is required to use different frequency than the primary FS system when it operates in this area. The satellite azimuth angle has a clear effect in the contours but clearly the FS antenna pattern dominates. Based on the shown results, the following conclusions can be provided: The FSS transmitter may transmit simultaneously with the near by FS-receiver, if it is located out of the main beam area of the FS-receiver and the distance from FS-receiver is in order of few kilometres. This would require spectrum sensing to take into account the local propagation profile. Those FSS-stations that are located within the main beam area of FS-receiver, or are too close to the FS-receiver, need to be able to use a different frequency band for the operation. The distance towards the FS-antenna main lobe is very long, and it can not be evaluated reliably with the short distance geometry and path loss model applied for these simulations. Even though we focused here on the interference scenario 1), the same approach can be used to analyze the other scenarios depicted in Figure 5 as well. The interference link between the FS-transmitter and FSS-ground station receiver (link 4 of Figure 5), is close to reciprocal to the uplink scenario that was presented here and the required distances were observed to be of the same order as for the uplink scenario. 523

8 Figure 8. Simulation layout for the hybrid LTE system. C. Mobile 2-way communication Satellite Services below 3 GHz: overlay scenario. While the secondary utilization of frequency resources might be the most straightforward way to apply cognitive radio to satellite bands, satellites that operate on the same frequency band as the terrestrial systems could be used to provide additional coverage to existing terrestrial mobile communications systems. This would, however, require careful control and management of system resources to avoid interference between the two domains. The regional hybrid system consists of terrestrial 3GPP long term evolution (LTE) network and satellite LTE spots to extend the coverage of the terrestrial network. In the depicted system the satellite operator is a secondary/complementary LTE service provider and the terrestrial LTE-operator is a primary user of the GHz band. Spot beam technology is used to provide sufficient signal powers to the satellite reception as well as to restrict the interference to terrestrial network to an acceptable level. The main principle to avoid interference in any typical cellular network is the frequency planning. Optimally, the hybrid network should be planned to have no overlapping between the terrestrial network and the satellite spots. However, drifting of the satellite spots, which cannot be avoided, will cause the satellite spots to gradually start overlapping with the terrestrial cells and at some point this will create an interference problem. Therefore, assuming that the satellite and terrestrial segment deploy exactly the same frequency band, it is very difficult to avoid the interference by frequency planning. The basic elements of cognitive radio, sensing the spectrum availability, allocating and sharing the frequency resources between the satellite and terrestrial systems and the optimal utilization of network resources, are critical in applying the hybrid single frequency concept. The effect of the satellite interference to the capacity of a terrestrial LTE-network was studied by adding satellite interference on top of a suburban macrocell LTE-network as shown in Figure 8. The terrestrial cell layout was constructed of seven sites with three sectorized cells per site and wrap-around modeling was used to effectively extend the network. The terrestrial network has 20 active users per cell; it transmits with 40 W power in each sector and applies a 2x2 MIMO in transmission. Most of the terrestrial system parameters are set according to ITU-R M.2135 [21]. The terrestrial network was studied by using a LTE system simulator with a proportionally fair data packet scheduler and link level performance mapping according to the simulated signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio (SINR) levels. The satellite link interference was set to spatially overlap with the terrestrial network. The dualpolarized two Markov state CTTC Land-Mobile-Satellite (LMS) channel model [22] was assigned for the satellite signal and the WINNER II terrestrial channel model [23] was used for the terrestrial system. The simulation time was proceeded by using a consept of drops, i.e., the large scale parameters and user locations were randomly allocated for each drop. Each drop was simulated over a given time and the simulation was performed over a given number of drops. The simulations were performed for a 10 MHz terrestrial network bandwidth and for 3, 5 and 10 MHz satellite signal bandwidths to study the partially and fully overlapping cases. The carrier frequency of 2.6 GHz was selected because it is expected that this band will be mostly exploited in urban areas and terrestrial networks at this band would not be built in rural areas. A suburban macro-cell system was selected for the simulations due to the fact that the overlapping with the satellite LTE-cells would probably be most severe in a suburban scenario. The ITU-R recommendation for IMT-A system simulation inter-site distance (ISD) is 1299 m for suburban macrocell and 1732 m for rural macro-cell [21]. The satellite interference is expected to be most harmful for large cells and especially for the edge users of the large cells. Therefore, simulations were performed for the 3 km ISD to evaluate large cell behaviour. The simulation results are presented for throughput degradation as a function of received satellite interference power. The throughput degradation refers to degradation due to satellite interference. The degradation is calculated by comparing the results of simulation of a terrestrial system without satellite interference to a simulation that is otherwise identical, but with satellite interference. The results are presented for cell average throughput degradation (Figure 9) and for cell edge users throughput degradation (Figure 10). The cell average throughput has been calculated by dividing the total sum of the correct bits transmitted over the whole network with the number of cells, active transmission time and the total system bandwidth. The cell edge users are defined according to ITU-R as the 5 % of the users with the worst performance. These results show that the effect of the satellite interference is almost negligible at a received interference level of 90 dbm which means roughly 10 db received SNR for the satellite signal receiver on 3 MHz bandwidth. The effect of interference is less than 7 % for cell edge users even at 77 dbm interference power. The effect of interference bandwidth 524

9 0 Total number of users:420,lte bandwidth:10mhz,su-mimo,2 x 2, ISD:3km 0 LTE bandwidth:10mhz,su-mimo,2 x 2, ISD:3km Cell ave. thput degradation [%] Sat BW 3 MHz Sat BW 5 MHz Sat BW 10 MHz Rx power from Satellite [dbm] Figure 9. Cell average throughput degradation. Ave. thput degradation for cell edge user [%] Sat BW 3 MHz Sat BW 5 MHz Sat BW 10 MHz Rx power from Satellite [dbm] Figure 10. Throughput degradation of cell edge users. is small but evident. It must be noted that the power density of the interference signal decreases as the bandwidth increases because the total power of satellite was kept equal for each bandwidth. If the interference power density would remain same for each bandwidth, the effect of increasing bandwidth would have more effect. The throughput degradation of the cell edge users is slightly higher than the cell average throughput degradation, but the difference is quite small. The relative difference is small probably because the terrestrial interference is lower at the centre areas of the cell. Therefore at the cell centre the additional satellite interference may be relatively high compared to the noise plus terrestrial interference seen by the receiver. On the other hand, the terrestrial interference may be much higher than the satellite interference at cell edge areas and therefore the relative SINR degradation may be rather small for the edge users. However, the SINR degradation of cell edge users may have more dramatic effect on their data throughput. So, is there need for cognition when the previous results show that the amount of interference without cognition might be at a tolerable level? The cognitivity would be needed in many cases to manage the satellite beams and the interference caused to terrestrial network. It seems that an adequate SNR level for satellite LTE reception can be achieved on 3 MHZ bandwidth at such satellite power levels that the influence to terrestrial network is acceptable. If the cognitivity can be exploited to manage the interference, the satellite cell power and bandwidth can be increased. For example, 85 dbm reception power is required to achieve 10 db SNR on 10 MHz bandwidth. However, 85 dbm satellite reception power on fully overlapping bandwidth causes interference to terrestrial network. If cognition is applied to provide, e.g., extra 10 db of attenuation towards the terrestrial cell, the 10 MHz bandwidth can be used by the satellite operator instead of 3 MHz. The interference reduction requires spectrum awareness and accurate beamforming to control the satellite spot beams. The spectrum awareness may include also awareness of the terrestrial network load level, and therefore the satellite operator may use wider bandwidths and higher power levels on regions where terrestrial cell load is small. On the contrary, the satellite cell may need to attenuate the interference levels towards the terrestrial cells under high load conditions. In this case, the satellite operator could also configure a spot beam on non-overlapping frequency to provide support for the terrestrial cell. If GEO satellites would be used instead of LEO satellites, the satellite cell may be assumed to overlap with the terrestrial LTE-network. The spot beams could provide some attenuation against the interference only if large areas without terrestrial coverage exist. Therefore the MFN configuration would most likely form a better basis for the network configuration. The SFN principle may also be applicable if the overlapping frequency fraction remains low and the power of the satellite transmission is limited to an acceptable level. The required satellite transmission power can be reduced if external user equipment antennas with higher gain are used for satellite link communication. If the terrestrial network cell size at 2.6 GHz would be limited to 3 km, the overlapping beams could be allowed and the SFN principle seems to be applicable to GEO satellite operation as well. The dynamic spectrum awareness would require information exchange between the LTE base stations (enodeb) and the satellite operator. The radio controller functionality is integrated into enodeb in LTE. There is no centralized controller in E-UTRAN. Therefore the satellite LTE-operator needs to be able to communicate with the enodebs within its influence area using the X2 interface of the LTE system. The self-optimization capabilities of the LTE-network can be exploited to gather information on the LTE-network configuration. For example, the satellite enodeb may request an UE to report the global cell identity of another enodeb within its influence area. If location information of UE is attached to this procedure, the UEs could be used as sensors for satellite enodeb to gather information on the terrestrial cell locations and their coverage areas. 525

10 VI. FUTURE DIRECTIONS Cognitive radio technologies have been studied intensively during the last 10 years. However, use of these techniques in satellite communications has been a relatively unexplored area. In this paper, we have presented the classification for the application scenarios. In addition, initial research carried out in several scenarios was described. Even though many promising results and conclusions were achieved in our studies, much more work in the future is needed. Several issues in each of the studied scenarios need to be clarified in the future. These topics are discussed in the following. Secondary use of the satellite spectrum Following questions need to be answered in the future - What are the most suitable bands for spectrum sharing? - What kind of sensing can be used in these bands? - What kind of transmission powers to use and how the type of antennas affects to this? - What kind of databases can be used? - How much the answer is based on location? E.g., use of satellite bands close to polar region might be possible in very wide frequency band. In addition to simulations and analysis, real measurements are needed to confirm the results achieved with the used channel models. Measurements would provide valuable information for the first depicted question in the list as well. In addition to the situation in the band of interest, also leakage to other bands should be studied. Adjacent channel interference (ACI) depends on the spectrum response of the communication system, inadequate filtering is a common reason behind the phenomenon. To address the ACI issue, measurements and proper secondary signal design are needed. Possible methods to avoid the ACI include setting guard intervals to the signal or even sensing the adjacent bands to ensure them to be empty as well before starting transmission. Also secondary operation in higher frequencies should be considered in the future. The dominant loss factor in addition to the propagation path loss between 10 GHz and 30 GHz is called hydrometeor absorption. It is caused when the radio signal propagates through rain, snow, hail, and ice droplets. Clouds and fog can be categorized generically as hydrosols, i.e., suspended droplets of liquid water, which are typically less than 0.01 cm in diameter [2]. A large amount of prediction methods have been developed for the estimation of the tropospheric effects. Many of them have been introduced in Section 2 of the Ippolito s book [2]. Clearly the largest effect comes with the rain. Clouds, gaseous absorptions, and tropospheric scintillation are not causing very large losses. The weather effects can be taken into account in link design using fading margins with availability percentage and the statistical approach. Spectrum sensing with an omnidirectional antenna can be very problematic and unreliable for high-frequency GEO satellite signal detection. The signal levels received at earth stations are low and high-gain receiving antennas are needed in many cases to be able to receive the data. The gain of the antenna can be easily tens of decibels. Due to very long distance the received signal level is weak at the earth station even in the line-of-the sight (LOS) situation. Additional impairments decrease rapidly the performance of the receiver. For example, there may be blind spots close to buildings or due to any other obstacles between the FSS satellite and the receiving device. It is necessary to have a LOS signal for the spectrum sensing to make the sensing as reliable as possible. One possible solution might be to build a specific infrastructure for the sensing. The sensing stations on top of hills with paraboloidal antennas would sense the spectrum and then provide the sensing information to the terrestrial system. Other approaches in spectrum sharing such as secondary markets need to be developed in the satellite spectrum as well. In [24] it is claimed that there is already a vibrant secondary market for satellite transponder capacity in most bands, with significant capacity sold on the spot market or on-demand from vendors to meet the often sporadic needs of newsgathering, disaster recovery and military operations. However, secondary market allowing other systems to use the resources would be needed as well to boost the capacity of other networks asneeded basis. The secondary market should not be limited to consider only the use of satellite transponders. Strongly supporting features of this concept are i) Cooperative shared access can provide QoS guarantee for both systems operating at the area; ii) business models are easier to develop from the satellite system operator perspective; and iii) Involuntary or uncoordinated sharing in satellite bands that are quite sensitive is not probable in near future. Rather than allowing sensing-based access to satellite spectrum the more probable situation is to have a working real-time secondary market operating there. Satellite system as a secondary user of the spectrum Even though most of the techniques discussed in the area of terrestrial cognitive radio operation and their expected advances can be mostly seen also in the satellite communications, clear differences exist. The main part is the large distance between the transmitter and the receiver. Delays that are caused by long distances affect strongly to the use of cognitive and adaptive radio link techniques. Feedback information is greatly delayed when it arrives at the transmitter. Thus, the information that is changing rapidly should not be considered in the operation, especially if the satellite system is operating at GEO orbit. In addition, the footprint of the satellite can be thousands of square kilometres. The requirement to know all the terrestrial operation in this area and be able to report this activity rapidly to the transmitter of the satellite system is not a practical requirement. This restricts the use of the satellite system as the secondary user of the spectrum. However, it does not make it impossible as we have shown here. Considering the case of FS-FSS operation, cognition means not only the spectrum but also knowledge of locations of slowly moving or fixed stations. This information is not 526

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