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1 vii TABLES OF CONTENTS CHAPTER TITLE PAGE DECLARATION DEDICATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ABSTRACT ABSTRAK TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF ABREVIATIONS LIST OF SYMBOLS LIST OF APPENDICES ii iii iv v vi vii xi xiii xviii xix xxi 1 INTRODUCTION Introduction Research Background Problem Statements Objectives and Scope of the Research Research Contributions Organization of the Thesis 8 2 LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction Classification of Vehicle Suspension Systems Passive Suspension Semi-Active Suspension Active Suspension Performance Index Pneumatic Active Suspension Control Strategies Active Force Control Summary 23
2 viii 3 METHODOLOGY Introduction Modelling and Simulation Experimental Study Summary 33 4 SKYHOOK ADAPTIVE NEURO ACTIVE FORCE CONTROL Introduction The SAFAFC Scheme Adaptive Fuzzy System Pneumatic Actuator System Load Dynamics Cylinder Chambers Dynamics Valve Model Dynamics Controller Design Innermost Control Loop (PI Control) Outermost Control Loop (PID Control) Intermediate Control Loops (Skyhook and AFC) Stability Analysis Simulation Road Profiles as Disturbances Results and Discussions Sinusoidal Wave Road Profile (Frequency 1.5 Hz, Amplitude 3.5 cm) Other Results for Different Road Profiles Effect of Load Variation Summary 71 5 SKYHOOK ADAPTIVE FUZZY ACTIVE FORCE CONTROL Introduction 72
3 ix 5.2 The SANAFC scheme Neural Network Model Controller Design Adaptive Neural Network and Its Application in the AFC Loop Simulation Results and Discussion Simulation Results in Time Domain Simulation Results in Frequency Domain Summary EXPERIMENTAL IMPLEMENTATION OF THE SANAFC SCHEME Introduction Quarter Car Suspension Test Rig Passive Suspension Data Acquisition System Sensors Accelerometer Displacement Sensor Pressure Sensor Pneumatic Actuator System Controller Development Force Tracking Controller Outermost Loop Controller Intermediate Loop Controller Skyhook AFC scheme Results and Discussions Time Domain Response Frequency Domain Response Summary 134
4 x 7 DISCUSSION ON SIMULATION AND EXPERIMENTAL DIFFERENCES Introduction General Findings of the Study Main Simulation and Experimental Differences Values of the Car Model Parameters Sprung Mass Unsprung Mass Force Tracking Control of the Pneumatic Actuator Relative Measurement Performance of the Various Control Schemes Compared to the Passive Suspension Summary CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Conclusion Recommendations for Future Works 146 REFERENCES 147 Appendices A-C
5 xi LIST OF TABLES TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE 2.1 The summarised literature review of the active suspension control strategy The summarised literature review of the AFC strategy The vehicle data The pneumatic data The RMS error values of the inverse dynamic model response Open loop characteristic of a quarter car model RMS error values of the model response Percentage improvement of the model compared with passive suspension A summary of results RMS error values of the model response with different road profiles A summary of percentage improvement results of the model compared with passive suspension with different road profiles A summary of results for the SAFAFC scheme with different road profiles Error! Bookmark not defined. 5.1 RMS error values of the inverse actuator model response using adaptive NN RMS error values for the parameters of interest of the SANAFC and SANAFC schemes Percentage RMS error values for the parameters of interest of the SANAFC and SANAFC schemes compared with passive suspension apply different road profiles A summary of results for the SANAFC scheme with different road profiles 92
6 xii 6.1 Responses of the SANAFC, PID and passive suspension schemes Percentage responses of the SANAFC and PID compare with passive suspension schemes A summary of results for the SANAFC scheme with different road profiles A summary of average percentage improvement results for the SAFAFC and SANAFC schemes compared with passive suspension using different road profiles A summary of results for the SANAFC scheme with different road profiles 139
7 xiii LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE 1.1 AFC concept applied to an active suspension system Passive suspension system Semi-active suspension system Active suspension system Power spectral density of various terrains Human tolerance limits for vertical vibration The flowchart of the research methodology The proposed SAFAFC scheme The structure of a fuzzy logic controller A representation of the Gaussian membership function The adaptive fuzzy structure The pneumatic system Force tracking control pneumatic actuator Force tracking control pneumatic actuator Outermost loop PID controller configuration Fine tuning the PID controller The intermediate loops comprising the skyhook and AFC subschemes Skyhook damper configuration The skyhook in the intermediate loop controller scheme Tuning B sky for the skyhook method Inverse dynamic of the pneumatic actuator using AF Membership functions for the input and output parameters of AF Response of the identified inverse dynamic model of the pneumatic actuator Estimated mass of the body using AF 55
8 xiv 4.18 The SAFAFC block diagram Simplification of the SAFAFC block diagram Simulink block diagram of a passive suspension Bode plot of a passive suspension Simulink diagram of the SAFAFC Road profile inputs as disturbances The time response simulation of all the control schemes The frequency domain results for all the control schemes Desired and actual forces of the SAFAFC scheme The computed estimated mass of the body of the SAFAFC scheme The time domain results of the SAFAFC strategy with load variation and sinusoidal road profile using f = 1.5 Hz and am = 3.5 cm The frequency domain results of the SAFAFC strategy with load variation and sinusoidal input road profile with f = 1.5 Hz and am = 3.5 cm The proposed SANAFC scheme Model of an artificial neuron The structure of a three-layered multilayer perceptron The intermediate loop controller scheme The structure of adaptive NN to identify the inverse dynamics of the pneumatic actuator Response of the adaptive NN to estimate the actuator force Response of the error values the actuator force A Simulink diagram of the SANAFC scheme The time domain response of SANAFC scheme compared to SAFAFC scheme subjected to sinusoidal road profile, f = 1.5Hz, am = 3.5 cm The time domain response of SANAFC scheme compared to SAFAFC scheme subjected to sinusoidal road profile, f = 0.8 Hz, am = 1.25 cm The time domain response of SANAFC scheme compared to SAFAFC scheme subjected to chirp signal road profile 87
9 xv 5.12 The time domain response of SANAFC scheme compared to SAFAFC scheme subjected to sinusoidal wave hole test road profile The time domain response of SANAFC scheme compared to SAFAFC scheme subjected to sleeper-plate test road profile The time domain response of half-laden condition for the SANAFC SAFAFC schemes subject to sinusoidal road profile, f = 1.5 Hz, am = 3.5 cm The time domain response of half-laden condition for the SANAFC SAFAFC schemes subject to sinusoidal road profile, f = 1.5 Hz, am = 3.5 cm as road profile The actual force generated by the SANAFC and SAFAFC schemes for various road profiles The computed estimated mass the body of the SANAFC and SAFAFC schemes for various road profiles The frequency domain response of the SANAFC and SAFAFC schemes subject to sinusoidal road profile, f = 1.5 Hz, am = 3.5 cm The frequency domain response of the SANAFC and SAFAFC schemes subject to sinusoidal road profile, f = 0.8 Hz, am = 1.25 cm The frequency domain response of the SANAFC and SAFAFC schemes subject to chirp signal as road profile The frequency domain response of the SANAFC and SAFAFC schemes subject to a half sinusoidal wave hole test road profile The frequency domain response of the SANAFC and SAFAFC schemes subjected to sleeper-pate test road profile The frequency domain results for a half-laden condition for the SANAFC SAFAFC schemes subject to sinusoidal road profile, f = 1.5 Hz, am = 3.5 cm The frequency domain results for a full-laden condition for the SANAFC SAFAFC schemes subject to sinusoidal road profile, f = 1.5 Hz, am = 3.5 cm 104
10 xvi 6.1 A quarter car suspension test rig Configuration of the hardware-in-the-loop simulation Passive suspension test rig Pin assignments for the analog and digital I/O connector pins The DAS1602 card in the PC Signal conditioning interface Accelerometer attached to the sprung mass of the rig Accelerometer attached to the tyre (unsprung mass) of the rig Simulink and RTW block diagram of the sprung and unsprung mass accelerometers to measure the acceleration, velocity and displacement Suspension deflection sensor attached to the end of actuator Tyre deflection sensor attached to the base of tyre Simulink and RTW block diagram of the two LVDTs used tomeasure the suspension deflection and road profile The pressure sensor Simulink and RTW block diagram of the pressure sensor to measure indirectly the actuated force Pneumatic actuation system Simulink and RTW block diagram of the pneumatic actuation system Results for the force tacking controller Tuning of the PID Controller Intermediate loop configuration Tuning skyhook parameter B sky Identification of the inverse dynamic model of the pneumatic actuator Inverse dynamic pneumatic actuator using adaptive NN The PLC system to generate the road profiles Simulink and RTW block diagram of the LVDT to measure the road profile Road profiles (a) sinusoidal wave f = 1.1 Hz, am = 1.0 cm (b) chirp signal (c) a half sinusoidal wave hole test (d) sleeperplate test 123
11 xvii 6.26 The time domain response of the passive suspension subject to sinusoidal wave road profile, f = 1.1 Hz, am = 1.0 cm The time domain response of the PID and SANAFC active suspensions subject to sinusoidal wave road profile, f = 1.1 Hz, am = 1.0 cm The time domain response of the SANAFC scheme with 40 kg load variation subject to sinusoidal wave road profile, f = 1.1 Hz, am = 1.0 cm The time domain response of the SANAFC scheme with 75 kg load variation subject to sinusoidal wave road profile, f = 1.1 Hz, am = 1.0 cm The actual force required by the PID and SANAFC schemes for various road profiles The computed estimated mass for various road profiles The frequency domain response of the vehicle suspension subject to sinusoidal wave road profile, f = 1.1 Hz, am = 1.0 cm The frequency domain response of the SANAFC scheme with 40 kg as load variation The frequency domain response of the SANAFC scheme with 75 kg as load variation Time delay problem in the experiment Configuration of the front unsprung mass configuration 142
12 xviii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS A/D AFC AF BP DOF D/A EC FFT FLC HILS LQR LQG LM MF MRAC NN PI PID RTW RMS SANAFC SAFAFC : Analogue to Digital converter : Active Force Control : Adaptive Fuzzy : Back Propagation : Degree of Freedom : Digital to Analogue converter : Evolutionary Computation : Fast Fourier Transform : Fuzzy Logic Controller : Hardware-in-the-loop Simulation : Linear Quadratic Regulator : Linear Quadratic Gaussian : Levenberg-Marquardt : Membership Functions : Model Reference Adaptive Control : Neural Network : Proportional Integral : Proportional Integral Derivative : Real Time Workshop : Root Mean Square : Skyhook Adaptive Neuro Active Force Control : Skyhook Adaptive Fuzzy Active Force Control
13 xix LIST OF SYMBOLS A a - Piston effective areas a A b - Piston effective areas b am - Amplitude b - Bias b s - Damping coefficient B sky - Constant value of skyhook f - Frequency f s - Semi-active damper force f a - Active damper force g - Gravitational acceleration I - Identity matrix J - Jacobian Matrix K p - Proportional gain K i - Integral gain K d - Derivative gain k s - Spring stiffness coefficient k t - Tyre stiffness coefficient M - Mass of the air in the cylinder m s - Sprung mass m u - Unsprung mass P - Pressure of the air in the cylinder P a - Absolute pressures in actuator s chambers a P b - Absolute pressures in actuator s chambers b Q - Disturbance R - Ideal gas constant T - Temperature V - Volume of the air in the cylinder w - Weight
14 xx l x - Centre of Gaussian antecedent MF at rule l and input i i l y - Centre of l of consequence fuzzy set z s - Sprung mass displacement z u - Unsprung mass displacement z r - Road profile z s z u - Suspension deflection z u z r - Tyre deflection z& - Sprung mass velocity s & z& s - Sprung mass acceleration z& - Unsprung mass velocity u ψ - Cost function l σ - Width of Gaussian antecedent MF at rule l and input i i μ - LM learning rate
15 xxi LIST OF APPENDICES APPENDIX TITLE PAGE A List of Publications 154 B Results for the SAFAFC Scheme Subjected to Various 156 Road Disturbances C Results for the Practical Implementation of the 168 SANAFC Scheme
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