ESA Radar Remote Sensing Course ESA Radar Remote Sensing Course Radar, SAR, InSAR; a first introduction
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1 Radar, SAR, InSAR; a first introduction Ramon Hanssen Delft University of Technology The Netherlands r.f.hanssen@tudelft.nl Charles University in Prague Contents Radar background and fundamentals Imaging radar, SAR Physics and geometry Resolution Interferometry observation and unknowns
2 Early ground based radar RAdio Detection and Ranging
3 Bistatic monostatic radar Monostatic: same antenna for transmitting and receiving Bistatic: different antennas for transmitting and receiving Radar Types Continuous Wave (CW) Radar. Transmits and receives continuously. Usually bistatic. Velocity measurements. Pulse Radar. The common radar type. It sends the signal in pulses. Measures range and velocities
4 Radar mapping of the Moon, Venus, Mars (1946) (1961) (1963) Main parameters: Distance Velocity Intensity Retrograde rotation Venus Improvement of Astronomical unit
5 ESA Radar RemoteMosaic Sensing of Course 2008 Magellan Synthetic Aperture Radar Venus Maat Mons, Venus Magellan Synthetic Aperture Radar Radar clinometry, altimeter, and backscatter
6 Towards imaging radar Radar Remote Sensing Course 2008 Optical imagery (falseesa color) versus radar imagery Delft University, AE Resolution: 4x20 m
7 Physics Radio waves, active sensor Wavelength range is cm-m 24 cm Charles University, 5 cmprague 3
8 Penetration (weather independent) Radar waves penetrate the atmosphere and clouds C band Radar Images at Different Frequencies X-band L-band P-band
9 Sahara desert Physics Sahara, NW Sudan (SIR-A) Landsat optical Shuttle L-band radar What do we see? Radar penetrates material with a low dielectric constant (dep. on wavelength) Here about 3 m. Physics - Scattering Scattering is dominated by wavelength-scale structures Wavelength shorter: image brighter Specular and Bragg scattering Speckle
10 Scattering Smooth SPECULAR Radar signal return depends on: Slope Roughness Dielectric constant Rough
11 Physics scattering phase Imaginary Radar pixel phase is superposition of near-random scattering elements: Unpredictable! Real Geometry Terminology Foreshortening, layover, shadow Why side-looking? Incidence angle, Coordinates range, azimuth
12 Geometry Slant range Layover Foreshortening Shadow Ground range Geometry JERS-1 data (M.Shimada) Shadow Foreshortening Layover
13 Resolution, Pixel size, Posting Range Azimuth Pulsed versus CW radar Continuous wave radars need to receive while transmitting normally no range measurements Pulsed radars: Pulse repetition frequency (PRF): 1680 Hz Pulse period: 1/PRF=0.6 ms Power 0.6 ms τ=37 μs Peak power 10 3 W t p Target echo 10-9 W Time Range measurement: R = 0.5 c t p Rule of thumb: R [km] = 0.15 t p [μs] (150 m = 1 μs) Skolnik,2001 tp Range ambiguity!!
14 Relation pulse length range resolution Pulse length: τ [s]=37 μs Corresponds with distance: c τ [m] = 3e8 37e-6 = [m] What is the smallest distance between two targets to be separated? Two targets can be recognized if separated ½c τ [m] = 5.5 [km] 2-way travel 37 μs = 11.1 km ½cτ Synthetic shortening pulse length Transmit a chirp : signal with increasing frequency over pulse interval FM: frequency modulation Effective pulse interval: τ=1/bandwidth = 1/15.5 MHz = [sec] 64 ns Range resolution : ½cτ [m] = 9.6 [m] = c / (2 B R )
15 Matched filter Antenna beam: Fraunhofer diffraction
16 Wave front concept tan θ = y / L Fraunhofer Diffraction tan θ sin θ θ y/l Monochromatic radiation Far-field approximation and L >> w: θ = θ Plane wave at slit w L Condition for minimum: δ =w sin θ = m λ y m λ L / w First minimum: δ θ = λ / w Limits spatial resolution Optical, 0.5 μm, lens 5 cm, 1000 km 10 m Microwave, 3cm, antenna 1m, 1000 km 30 km!!
17 Fraunhofer single slit (additive interferometry) Destructive interference Slit openings about wavelength size Consider elements of wavefront in slit, and treat as point sources Constructive interference Sinc-pattern Resolution I: RAR Real Aperture Radar Resolution dependent on antenna dimension/pulse length Beam width (half power width) is ratio wavelength over antenna size:
18 Calculate Ground Resolution C-band λ θ = D λ= ~0.05 m D=10 m antenna Beam angle = /10 = rad (0.3deg) 1.3 m R=850 km times = [m] m = 4.2 km Antenna dimensions antenna pulse
19 Slant range antenna pulse repetition frequency (PRF) pulse length swath ground range Improvement in Resolution (Crimea, Ukraine) Real Aperture Radar 5x14 km pixels Massonnet and Feigl, 1998
20 Improvement of along-track resolution Synthetic antenna Physical antenna Resolution cell Improvement in Resolution (Crimea, Ukraine) Real Aperture Radar Synthetic Aperture Radar 5x14 km pixels 4x20 m pixels Massonnet and Feigl, 1998
21 Azimuth resolution SAR Similar to range direction: dependent on bandwidth Dopp C S a B v / = Δ Doppler frequency λ f D 2v = λ φ λ s C S D v v f sin 2 2 / = = L λ β = β β sin Doppler frequency SAR Beam width: L v L v v B v v v f v v v f C S C S C S Dopp C S C S C S D C S C S C S D / / / / / /,max / / /,min 2 / sin sin 2 = = = + = + + = = = λ λ λ β λ β λ β λ β λ β λ β λ β 2 2 / / / L L v v B v C S C S Dopp C S a = = = Δ SAR resolution: Minimum Doppler: Maximum Doppler: Doppler bandwidth:
22 ERS, the values Az_res = v_s/c / B_Dop = 7100/ 1380 = 5.14 m Az_pix = v_s/c / PRF = 7100/ 1680 = 4.22 m Ra_res = c / (2 B_R) = 3e8 / (2x1.55e7) = 9.68 m Ra_pix = c / (2 RSF) = 3e8/(2x1.86e7) = 7.91 m Resolution Oversampling factor: Posting Pixel size Samples: Samples: Resolution II (SAR) Resolution SAR is inversely proportional with bandwidth Azimuth resolution SAR: Half antenna size! No influence of satellite height on azimuth resolution SAR image Range resolution improvement using chirp waveform
23 Radar equation (monostatic) Radar equation relates transmit power to received power, for a specific antenna and target: The equation above is known as the radar equation. Note that power received by antenna is inversely proportional to the 4th power of distance. derivation using radar block model:
24 Radar equation (monostatic) Transmitter Receiver Circular switch Transmit power P t [W] Off On Off On Antenna gain G [dim.less] Received power P r [W] Range R [m] Transmit pulse Received echo σ: Radar cross section σ = σ 0 A A σ 0 : Normalized radar cross section or sigma-naught A: scattering area [m 2 ] A e : Antenna size sigma-naught: "a dimensionless quantity defining the ability of an object to scatter the incident microwave radiation back toward the radar instrument." Radar equation step by step
25 Radar equation (example ERS-2) Transmit: W Receive: W Difference: ~10 12 W Echo is 120 db below transmit power level! Working with decibels Large power ratios db = log (P), and v.v. P = 10 (db/10) where P is Power ratio, or A parameter related to a power unit (e.g. antenna gain) In equations, sometimes db needs to be converted to numeric Examples: R db
26 Sources of Noise The most important source of noise in a radar system is the one produced by the device itselft, i.e. thermal noise : P n = k T sys B P n : Noise power k : Boltzmann s constant ( [J/K] T sys : Noise temperature [K] B : System bandwidth [Hz] Other sources only of concern when working at the edges of the microwave spectrum are Cosmic noise (<UHF) and Atmospheric absorption noise, (mm waves). Signal to Noise ratio (SNR) SNR is an expression of the quality of a radar measurement SNR = Ps / Pn For imaging radar, SNR > 10 is required
27 SNR Echo P r + Total received signal Noise power P n Exercise Detect an oak tree at 10 km distance with SNR = 100 Given radar system: A = 8x20 m= 160 m 2 Wavelength = 0.25 m RCS = 0.1 P t = 1000 W ; G = 50 B = 1 MHz T sys = 1000 K Is this possible?
28 1/(4pi) Working out the assignment: The design table. Signal parameters Parameter Transmit Power Antenna gain 1/(4pi) /R 2 1/ A scat 160 m 2 22 Sigma-zero A r /R 2 1/ db Signal Power Value 1000 Wx Note: A r = G λ 2 / (4π) db Noise parameters Parameter Botzmann Bandwidth Noise Power 1000 K 30 / MHz T sys Value 1.38 x db SNR = P r P n = -129 (-139) = + 10 db, or 10:1-144 Not sufficient (SNR of 100 or 20dB was needed). How to change system? Only parameters not fixed were transmit power, antenna gain, noise temperature
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