Approximate Circuit Model for a Magnetic Pickup Piezoelectric Pickups Piezoelectric Pickup Analysis Guitar Volume and Tone Control

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1 Contents 1 Power Supplies... 1 Introduction... 1 A Simple Power Supply Circuit The Transformer The Rectifier The Frequency Domain... 4 The Filter Filter Analysis: The Frequency Domain Power Indicators A Basic Regulated Power Supply The 78xx Voltage Regulator Bipolar Power Supplies Using Batteries for Bipolar Power A Typical Bipolar Power Supply A Regulated Bipolar Power Supply Basic Vacuum Tube Diode Power Supplies Vacuum Tube Diodes The 5AR4, 5U4-GB, and 5Y3-GT Diodes Typical Vacuum Tube Diode Power Supplies Supply Voltage Distribution Final Comments Summary of Equations Pickups, Volume, and Tone Controls Introduction Single-Coil Magnetic Pickups Humbucker Pickups Peak and Average Output Voltages More Magnetic Pickup Analysis Inductance A Pickup Winding Example xv

2 xvi Contents Approximate Circuit Model for a Magnetic Pickup Piezoelectric Pickups Piezoelectric Pickup Analysis Guitar Volume and Tone Control Circuits Potentiometers Basic Guitar Tone Control Operation Multiple Pickups Pickup Phasing Amplifier Tone Controls A Basic Tone Control Circuit Improved Single-Pot Tone Control Baxandall Tone Control Other Tone Control Circuits Final Comments Summary of Equations Small-Signal and Low-Power Amplifiers Introduction Gain Decibels Other Amplifier Parameters Distortion Input Resistance Output Resistance Bandwidth Slew Rate Amplifier Classifications and Biasing Transistor Operating Regions Biasing Class A Class B Class AB The Load Line Class A Power Dissipation Characteristics The Common Emitter Configuration The Emitter Follower (Common Collector) Configuration The Common Base Configuration Field Effect Transistors Bipolar Transistor Specifications Basic BJT Amplifier Operation Voltage Divider Biased CE Amplifier Common Emitter Amplifier Analysis Example DC Q-Point Analysis AC Analysis Experimental Results

3 Contents xvii Amplifying a Guitar Signal Frequency Response Considerations Negative Feedback Local and Global Feedback A JFET Common Source, Class A Amplifier JFET Parameters JFET Amplifier Overview Piezoelectric Pickup Preamplifier Increasing Voltage Gain A JFET-BJT Multiple-Stage Amplifier Some Useful Modifications A Closer Look at Transconductance A MOSFET Common Source Amplifier Theoretical Analysis Experimental Results Operational Amplifiers Basic Noninverting and Inverting Op Amp Equations Noninverting and Inverting Amplifier Analysis Power Bandwidth Single-Polarity Supply Operation The Two Rules of Op Amp Analysis A Practical Op Amp Tip Inside the Op Amp Operational Transconductance Amplifiers An OTA Analysis Example Other OTA Applications Current Difference Amplifiers Miscellaneous Useful Circuits An Audio Test Oscillator The Rail Splitter Charge Pumps Class A Germanium Transistor Amplifier Final Comments Summary of Equations Solid-State Power Amplifiers Introduction The Basic Push Pull Stage Class AB: Eliminating Crossover Distortion Output Power Determination Bipolar Power Supply Operation Power Transistors Composite Transistors Darlington Transistors

4 xviii Contents Sziklai Transistors A Complete Power Amplifier Output Stage Analysis Transistor Thermal Analysis Parallel Connected Power Transistors Thermal Runaway Push Pull Stage with Parallel Transistors Adding a Tone Control Amplifier Stability Issues Ground Reference Star Grounding Motorboating Decoupling Capacitors The Zobel Network MOSFET Output Stages The V BE Multiplier The Rail Splitter Revisited Converting the Rail Splitter to an Amplifier Final Comments Summary of Equations Guitar Effects Circuits Introduction Signals and Spectra Time, Period, Frequency, and Pitch Sinusoids in the Time Domain Waveform Shape, Symmetry, and Harmonic Relationships Transfer Function Symmetry and Harmonic Distortion Another Odd Symmetry Example An Even Symmetry Example An Example of Neither Even Nor Odd Symmetry Intermodulation Distortion Influence of Amplifier Design on Distortion Effects of Negative Feedback Single-Ended vs. Push Pull Effects of Device Transfer Characteristics on Distortion Effects Bypassing Overdrive Circuits Single-Stage Transistor Overdrives Multiple-Stage Overdrive Circuits An Op Amp Overdrive Circuit Distortion Circuits Fuzz vs. Distortion Diode Clippers

5 Contents xix Logarithmic Amplifiers Phase Shifters The All Pass Filter Optocouplers An Experimental Phase Shifter Circuit Flangers Flanging vs. Phase-Shifting Bucket Brigade Devices Clock and LFO Generation A BBD-Based Flanger Chorus Effect Envelope Followers Signal Envelope Precision Rectifier Circuits An Experimental Envelope Follower String Frequency-to-Pulse Converter Compression and Sustain Voltage Controlled Amplifiers Experimental OTA-Based Compressor Experimental LDR-Based Compression/Sustain Tremolo Reverberation Delay Time Decay Time Reverb Springs A Digital Reverb Modulation and Pitch Shifting An Experimental Ring Modulator Frequency Doubling Vocoders Wah-Wah Circuits IGMF Bandpass Filter Experimental IGMF Wah-Wah Circuits A Gyrator-Based Wah-Wah Circuit Envelope Controlled Filter (Auto Wah) Final Comments Summary of Equations Low-Power Vacuum Tube Amplifiers Introduction Vacuum Tubes Used in this Chapter Parts Sources and Availability Vacuum Tube Parameters and Data Sheets Absolute Maximum Ratings Other Data Sheet Parameters

6 xx Contents Tube Pin Numbering General Amplifier Design Principles Cathode Feedback Biasing Fixed Biasing Class A, Resistance-Coupled, Common Cathode Amps A 12AU7 Low-Power Amp Design Example Q-Point Location and Distortion A 6AN8 Triode, Low-Power Amp Design Example The AC Load Line A 12AX7 Low-Power Amp Design Example A 12AT7 Low-Power Amp Design Example Pentodes A 6AN8 Low-Power Pentode Amp Design Example Cathode Followers and Phase Splitters Cathodyne Phase Splitter Design Differential Pair Phase Splitter Transformer-Coupled Phase Splitter Final Comments Summary of Equations Tube Power Amplifiers Introduction Maximum Power Transfer Basic Transformer Operation Reflected Load Resistance Magnetic Saturation Transformer Coupling Advantages and Disadvantages of Transformer Coupling A Sampling of Audio Output Transformers Class A, Single-Ended Amplifiers A 6L6GC Triode-Mode, SE Amplifier Design Example L6GC Parameter Summary (Class A, V PP ¼ 350V) Substituting an EL EL34 Parameter Summary (Class A) Q-Point Analysis L6GC Pentode-Mode, SE Amplifier Design Example EL84 Pentode-Mode, SE Amplifier Design Example EL84 (6BQ5) Parameter Summary EL34 Pentode-Mode, SE Amplifier Design Example Selectable Triode/Pentode Operation Switching R K and Suppressor Grid G Switching Only G

7 Contents xxi Parallel Connected Tubes Complete SE Amplifier Examples L6/EL34, Dual-Mode, SE Amp Adding A Spring Reverb EL84, 4 W, SE Amplifier Single-Ended Class A Distortion Push Pull Amplifiers Basic DC Operation Basic AC Operation AC Analysis of the Push Pull Output Transformer Push Pull Class A Distortion EL34 Triode-Mode, Push Pull Design Example The AC Load Line A Complete Push Pull, EL34, Triode-Mode Amplifier L6GC Pentode-Mode, Push Pull Design Example A Complete Push Pull, Pentode-Mode, 6L6GC Amplifier Standby Operation Ultralinear Amplifiers Construction Techniques and Tips Chassis Materials Wiring Tips Testing Tips Final Comments Summary of Equations Appendix A Some Basic Circuit Theory Appendix B Selected Tube Characteristic Curves Appendix C Basic Vacuum Tube Operating Principles Index

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