Description and Evaluation of Multi-Geometry Silicon Prototype Sensors for the LHCb Inner Tracker
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1 LHCb Note Description and Evaluation of Multi-Geometry Silicon Prototype Sensors for the LHCb Inner Tracker F. Lehner, P. Sievers, O. Steinkamp, U. Straumann, A. Vollhardt, M. Ziegler Physik-Institut Universität Zürich July 5, 22 1 Introduction This note gives a description of full-size 6 multi-geometry prototype sensors for the LHCb Inner Tracker and presents the results of leakage current, total strip capacitance, coupling capacitance and metrological measurements. The sensors were manufactured by Hamamatsu Photonics, Japan, according to specifications of the Inner Tracker group. 2 Sensors Hamamatsu delivered 15 prototype sensors, in February 22. A summary of the sensor technology specifications and the wafer characteristics is given in table 1. The single-sided and AC coupled sensors were produced from 6 wafers, have a physical dimension of 11 mm 78 mm and a thickness of 32 µm of the n-type substrate. The overall dimensions and the technology are identical to the foreseen final sensor design as described in [1]. The sensors consist of five different regions. Two different pitches of p + strips, 198 µm and µm respectively, are implemented on the sensor. Additionally, the width of the p + strips is varied. The 198 µm region has implant widths of 5 µm, 6 µm and 7 µm, whereas the width of the strips in the µm region is 7 µm and 85 µm, respectively. This design results in five different values (two almost are the same) of the ratio strip width to strip pitch, w/p, which is the scaling parameter of the sensor capacitance. The width of the aluminium strip is 8 µm wider than the implant width in order to ensure a stable HV-operation of the sensors after irradiation, as it was advocated in reference [2]. Table 2 summarizes the geometries of the prototype sensors. Wafer size 6 Wafer thickness (32±2) µm Bulk material n type Resistivity (3-8) kω cm Crystal orientation < 1 > Implant p + type Strip biasing resistors (1.5±.5) MΩ, polysilicon Readout coupling AC Coupling capacitance > 125 pf/mm 2 Table 1: Wafer characteristics and specifications of the sensor technology. 1
2 April 23, 22 Characterization of ITR Prototype Sensors Overall dimensions Active area 11 mm 78 mm 18 mm 75.6 mm region strip No. pitch [µm] number of strips p + width [µm] AC Al width [µm] w/p A B C D E Table 2: Sensor geometry. Figure 1: Photographs of one prototype sensor. The five different geometries implemented on a sensor are clearly visible (left). The close-up (right) shows details of the sensor edge like the single-guard ring structure, the bias ring, polysilicon bias resistors and DC- and AC-contact pads. It is intended to implement one of these strip geometries in the final design for the silicon sensors of the LHCb Inner Tracker. The decision will be based upon performance tests on the prototype sensors described here. 3 Tests performed by the manufacturer The quality acceptance criteria are summarized in table 3. Before delivery, the leakage current and the capacitance as function of the bias voltage (I-V and C-V-curves), the sensor thickness and the breakdown voltage were measured by the manufacturer for all sensors. Additionally, the size of the polysilicon resistors was estimated and the quality of every strip was checked. Strips with a coupling capacitor short at 1 V, a current above 1 na at 8 V or a broken polysilicon resistor were flagged as not good strip by the manufacturer. These strips are listed in table 4. Seven of the fifteen delivered sensors have more than three bad channels and thus in fact do not pass the quality acceptance test. We agreed with Hamamatsu to accept these sensors, in view of the tight production schedule imposed by our upcoming test beam period 1 From 1 Hamamatsu said that they could not produce replacement sensors within the short time between receiving our specification and the requested delivery date. They assured us that, given an appropriate time for production, it will not be a problem for them to fulfill the given specification. 2
3 Characterization of ITR Prototype Sensors April 23, 22 Wafer planarity <5 µm Dicing tolerance ±2 µm Dicing parallelity ±1 µm Depletion voltage 4-1 V Breakdown voltage >3 V Inter-strip resistance >1 GΩ Total leakage current <1 µa at 8 V Breakthrough voltage AC coupling >1 V Number of bad strips per sensor <4 Table 3: Quality acceptance criteria. No. of bad strip with sensor coupling short enhanced leakage current 1 / / 2 / / 4 / / 6 58, 6 53, 93, 1, 16, 147, 148, 15, , 22, , 25 7, / / , 235, , 214, 215, 218, 219, 227, , , 244, 245, 248, 249, 255, 256, 26, 263, , , 231, 236, / / 15 / / 16 54, 7, 76, 77, , 6, 81, 82, / / Table 4: Number of strips flagged as bad by the manufacturer. the C-V-measurements the full depletion voltage was estimated to be between 65 V and 75 V. 4 Set-up The experimental set-up used to characterize the prototype sensors was identical to that used for previous sensor measurements [3]. For every sensor, the leakage current was measured as function of the bias voltage. The total strip capacitance was determined also as function of the biasing voltage, once for every region on every sensor. All measurements were performed at room temperature. For the determination of the capacitance, a measuring frequency of 1 MHz and an amplitude of 1 V were applied. 5 Leakage current In the LHCb Inner Tracker, operation voltages up to 3 V will be necessary to fully deplete sensors in the most irradiated area after ten years of operation. This is a consequence of the radiation induced damage of the bulk material that results in the change of the space 3
4 April 23, 22 Characterization of ITR Prototype Sensors charge [4]. Figure 2 shows the leakage currents as function of the biasing voltage, for all 15 prototype sensors. In this test, the bias voltage was not increased above 3 V. Up to 3 V, most of the sensors evince no breakdown and for six of the sensors the leakage current is still below 2 na at 3 V. Three sensors (6, 8 and 12) generally show a somewhat higher leakage current and sensor 18 exhibits a breakdown at 28 V. All our leakage current measurements are consistent within 2% with the measurements performed by the manufacturer, apart from the breakdown of sensor 18 that was not observed by the manufacturer. Moreover, a few sensors have been biased up to 5 V without showing any indication of a junction breakdown. This demonstrates that the single guard ring design by Hamamatsu ensures an excellent protection for single-sided devices against breakdown effects. The current stability of two sensors was investigated and verified in a 2 h long biasing test. No significant increase of the leakage current was observed over the duration of the test. 6 Total strip capacitance The achievable signal-to-noise ratio of a sensor connected to fast readout electronics is limited by the total strip capacitance of the sensor. Thus the determination of this value is interesting. In addition, as mentioned before, the full depletion voltage of a sensor can be estimated by measuring the total strip capacitance. In a pn-junction, the backplane capacitance is proportional to the inverse of the square root of the bias voltage applied to the junction. When full depletion voltage is reached, the capacitance assumes a constant value. Thus, the C-V-curve is expected to become flat above the full depletion voltage. Since the inter-strip capacitance is almost independent of the bias voltage, this argumentation holds also for the total strip capacitance. The total strip capacitance is here defined as the sum of the capacitance to the backplane and the capacitance to the adjacent strips, measured at 1 MHz. Figure 3 shows the total strip capacitance per unit length as function of the bias voltage. The C-V-curve was measured for all sensors, indicating a full depletion voltage of the order of 6 V, which is consistent with the statements of the manufacturer. The measured values of the total strip capacitances at a bias voltage of 8 V (which is above full depletion voltage) are summarized in table 5. The total capacitance can be expressed as a linear function of the ratio strip width w to strip pitch p. Figure 4 shows the total capacitance as function of w/p. A linear fit results in the parametrization: C tot = w p. (1) This result is in agreement at a 15% level with previous measurements on comparable sensors [3]. 7 Tests with automatic probe station An automatic wafer probe station setup has been commissioned, consisting of an Electroglas 134XA6 probe station with 6 chuck 2, a probe card for contacting DC- and AC-pads on the 2 The Electroglas 134XA6 wafer prober has air bearings, so that the chuck holding the sensor under vacuum runs frictionless on a linear electro motor plate without any mechanical wear. After an alignment of the sensor on the prober chuck, a fast and fully automatized scan of the sensor can therefore be performed. 4
5 Characterization of ITR Prototype Sensors April 23, sensor sensor sensor sensor sensor sensor sensor sensor sensor sensor sensor sensor sensor sensor sensor Figure 2: Leakage current as function of the biasing voltage. The measurement was performed at room temperature. 5
6 April 23, 22 Characterization of ITR Prototype Sensors capacitance [pf/cm] 2 1 Region A B C D E Figure 3: Total capacitance per unit length as function of the bias voltage. This measurement was performed on sensor 1. capacitance in pf Sensor Region A B C D E Table 5: List of measured capacitances at 8 V biasing voltage. A frequency of 1 MHz was used. sensor and an HP 4192A LCR meter. The probe station and the LCR meter were controlled via GPIB bus and a Labview program running on a PC. We have used the automatic probe station to carry out coupling capacitor scans on all delivered sensors. The measurement of the coupling capacitances for each individual strip allowed to detect certain classes of bad strips, which are characterized by a metal open, a metal short or a pinhole in the dielectric substrate of the coupling capacitor. The bad channels observed in our coupling capacitor scans were used as a cross check of Hamamatsu s 6
7 Characterization of ITR Prototype Sensors April 23, 22 capacitance [pf/cm] C tot = *w/p w/p Figure 4: Total strip capacitance per unit length as function of the ratio strip width to strip pitch (w/p). Different markers refer to different sensors. The line is an averaged linear fit. results. In addition, we were able to verify the specified value of the coupling capacitors, which was requested to be larger than 125 pf/mm 2. The coupling capacitor measurements were performed by contacting the AC- and DCpads of one strip of the sensors simultaneously with the probe card, in order to determine the coupling capacitance of the strip with the LCR meter. This setup can be modelled as an impedance network, consisting of a coupling capacitance between implant and metal (aluminium) layer, and a finite resistance represented by the metal and the implant itself. Since this network acts as a low-pass filter, the measured capacitance value becomes frequencydependent. This frequency dependence, as obtained with the LCR meter at an oscillator amplitude of 1 V, is shown in figure 5, where the coupling capacitor values are plotted for the five geometrical strip regions A-E (compare table 2). Note, that the coupling capacitor values depend on the implant width and hence differ from region to region, except for regions D and C, which have the same implant width. The roll over frequency in figure 5 occurs at around 1 khz, so that a safe coupling capacitor value can be extracted in the low-frequency limit at frequencies of 1 khz or less. Therefore, we have chosen to perform the coupling capacitor scan of the silicon sensors at a frequency of 1 khz. One of the resulting coupling capacitor profiles across the five geometrical regions A-E as a function of strip number for sensor Ham-12 is shown in figure 6. Two particular channels in this plot have coupling capacitors out of specifications, probably due to pinholes in the oxide 3. Overall, the capacitor profile is very uniform and has an RMS value of less than 1%. The obtained mean capacitance values for the regions A-E are presented in table 6. The values are well within specifications. 3 An experimental verification that the coupling capacitor has one or more pinholes in the dielectric involves a measurement of the leakage current through the capacitor while a voltage is being applied across the dielectric. 7
8 April 23, 22 Characterization of ITR Prototype Sensors capacitance [pf] 1 5 region A region B region C region D region E freq [khz] Figure 5: The frequency dependent value for the coupling capacitor in regions A-E. capacitance [pf] strip Figure 6: Coupling Capacitor scan of HAM-12. The capacitor measurement was performed at a frequency of 1 khz and a voltage amplitude of 1 V. Presently, we are working on a modified setup of the automatic probe station, which will allow us to measure in one probe scan the coupling capacitor value between AC and DC pads as well as the small leakage currents through the dielectrics while ramping up a voltage across the capacitors. This test should definitely discriminate between the various strip defects, such as pinholes, metal opens and shorts. Moreover, a DC-scan of all strips is prepared, in order to measure the leakage current of each individual strip. 8
9 Characterization of ITR Prototype Sensors April 23, 22 region width [µm] mean capacitance (pf/cm) specification (pf/cm) A B C D E Table 6: Average coupling capacitor values in different regions. 8 Metrological measurements on sensors One proposal for the assembly of Inner Tracker ladders [5] makes use of the cut edges of the sensors for alignment purposes. In a fixture or assembly template, the sensors are pushed with their cut edge against posts in order to align two sensors with respect to each other and with respect to alignment pins in the ladder support. This procedure has the big advantage of being simple and fast, but relies on the quality of the cutting line of the wafer. In the specifications, we requested that the cutting line has to be parallel with respect to a datum line defined by the silicon targets within ±1 µm. Furthermore, the dicing tolerance should be within ±2 µm of this datum line. Another specification is the flatness or planarity of the sensor itself, which is requested to be within ±25 µm. In order to verify these mechanical specifications, we characterized four silicon sensors on a precise optical metrology machine 4. The profile of the sensors has been determined by measuring the surface height of the sensors in a free state. Different focusing techniques, namely a laser focus and a LCD grid-projector, have been applied to determine the height z, and the measurement uncertainty is below 2 µm. On each sensor, z-coordinates have been recorded on an equidistant grid of 1 1 points covering the full surface of the sensor. A typical example of the resulting profiles is shown in figure 7. It shows a characteristic sensor deflection of 8 µm over the full length of 11 mm and width of 78 mm. Similar to the surface curvature studies for the LHCb Velo sensors [6], the shape has been fit by a five parameter 2D parabolic curve: z = A + Bx + Cx 2 + Dy + Ey 2 (2) The values obtained for C and E are in between mm 1 and mm 1. These results can be compared to the shape parameters for the 3 µm thick Hamamatsu VELO sensors 5, which have been determined to be in the range between mm 1 and mm 1 in x and mm 1 and mm 1 in y. The curvature of the Inner Tracker sensors seems to be in general smaller than that of the Velo ones, which can probably be attributed to the different aspect ratios of sensors. The more square or circular they are, the less warp is expected due to tension either during processing or during dicing. Although a sensor flatness of ±25 µm was specified, none of the measured sensors has reached this tough criterion. They all had planarities between ±(4 5) µm. The accuracy and parallelity of the cut lines have been determined by scanning along both sensor edges of all four measured sensors. A total of 1 points with respect to the nominal axis defined by the silicon targets have been recorded. A typical edge contour scan is shown in figure 8. The nominal dicing line is supposed to be at x =.3 mm with respect to the silicon targets. The parallelity of the cut line on all the measured four silicon sensors was found to be better than ±4 µm over the length of the sensor. The accuracy of the cutting, as 4 Optische Messtechnik Stein, Hunzenschwil, Switzerland 5 These sensors have been produced in 4 -technology 9
10 April 23, 22 Characterization of ITR Prototype Sensors z [mm] y [mm] x [mm] Figure 7: The z-profile of a sensor is shown. The measured points are connected by surface grid lines. The parabolic fit (grey surface) is also drawn. The flatness of the sensor is within ±4 µm. measured by the average deflection from the nominal line was determined to be better than 3.5 µm. Hence, the measured numbers on the silicon edges are significantly better than what was specified. Finally, the width and the parallelism of the visible aluminium traces for some strips in all five geometrical regions were measured and checked for misalignment and uniformity. The measurements were performed by scanning automatically along a strip and recording up to 15 equidistant data points. No misalignment of the strips could be found during the scans, and the parallelism of the measured traces with respect to the silicon targets was better than ±1 µm. The trace width of the aluminium on top of the implant was uniform within better than.3 µm (RMS-value). The measurements, however, yielded consistently a thinner trace width everywhere than the design values of table 2. The resulting difference was found to be between 1.4 µm for region A, and 1.8 µm for the region E. It is not clear, however, if this is due to a smaller metal overhang or not, since the implant strip itself could not be measured. 9 Implication on noise and S/N The total strip capacitance is the main contribution to the noise of the front-end amplifier. The noise referred to the amplifier input is usually expressed in terms of equivalent noise charge (ENC) and quoted in r.m.s electrons. For the BEETLE front-end chip, extensive studies on the noise performance were carried out [7]. The ENC of this chip can be expressed as function of the total input capacitance as 1
11 Characterization of ITR Prototype Sensors April 23, 22 y [mm] x [mm] Figure 8: The results of an edge scan along the dicing line of a sensor. The nominal cut line is indicated by the vertical line. The parallelity of the measured points is better than ±4 µm. follows: ENC = 43 e + 47 C tot e /pf. (3) However, this expression is only valid for a certain set of the programmable parameters of the BEETLE chip, and in particular to a value of V fs = mv, correspondig to a FWHM pulse width of about 45 ns at a capacitive load of 35 pf. The noise of the chip can be reduced at the expense of a larger pulse width (bandwidth), and for a value of V fs =1 mv (correspondig to a FWHM pulse width of about 51 ns at a capacitive load of 35 pf), an ENC of ENC = 382 e C tot e /pf. (4) can be obtained. For a minimum ionizing particle traversing a 3 µm thick silicon sensor, the most probable charge deposition is 3.5 fc, corresponding to 22 electron-hole pairs [8]. Using this number, the parametrization of the ENC for the BEETLE chip and the capacitance figures of table 5, the signal to noise ratio can easily derived. In figure 9 the computed S/N-ratio for a two sensor long ladder as function of w/p is shown. 1 Conclusion Electrical and metrological characteristics of prototype silicon sensors were measured. The results of the leakage current and capacitance measurements are very promising, especially when keeping in mind that the manufacturer assures us that the production quality can even be improved. The metrological measurements indicate an accurate enough cutting edge, so that the sensor edges can be used for alignment purposes. The warp of the sensors, however, is not within specifications and it has to be clarified with the vendor if it can be improved, or if specifications can be released. In an upcoming test beam in May 22, the performance of these multi-geometry sensors regarding charge collection efficiency and resolution will be investigated. The aim of the test 11
12 April 23, 22 Characterization of ITR Prototype Sensors S/N V fs =1 mv V fs = mv w/p Figure 9: S/N-ratio as function of w/p. The noise is calculated from the ENC parametrization of the BEETLE chip, assuming a capacitive load corresponding to a two-sensor ladder. The signal corresponds to one MIP. The lines are fits to the computed values and refer to two different BEETLE parameter settings (solid line V fs = mv and dashed line V fs =1 mv, see text). For the fit, the averaged capacitance values of all sensors were taken, whereas the shaded bands indicate the variation of the S/N-ratio because of the spread of the individually measured capacitances. beam is to provide the input for the decision, which geometry will be implemented in the final design of the LHCb Inner Tracker. References [1] O. Steinkamp, Layout of a Cross-Shaped Inner Tracker, LHCb [2] S. Albergo et al., Nucl. Instru. and Meth. A 466 (21), [3] F. Lehner, P. Sievers, O. Steinkamp, U. Straumann, M. Ziegler, V. Pugatch. Description and Characterization of Inner Tracker Silicon Prototype Sensors, LHCb [4] R. Wunstorf, Ph.D. Thesis, University Hamburg, see also DESY FH1K-92-1,1992. [5] B. Carron et al., Assembly Procedure for the LHCb Inner Tracker, LHCb note in preparation. [6] C. Parkes, T. Bowcock, P. Collins and K. Österberg. A study of the surface curvature of VELO prototype sensors, LHCb [7] D. Baumeister et al., LHCb note in preparation. [8] E. Gatti and P.F. Manfredi. Processing the Signals from Solid-State Detectors in Elementary-Particle Physics, Revista Del Nuovo Cimento Vol 9, N1 (1986). 12
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