Lecture 4 INTEGRATED PHOTONICS
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1 Lecture 4 INTEGRATED PHOTONICS
2 What is photonics? Photonic applications use the photon in the same way that electronic applications use the electron. Devices that run on light have a number of advantages over those that use electricity. Light travels at about 10 times the speed that electricity does, which means (among other things) that data transmitted photonically can travel long distances in a fraction of the time. Furthermore, visiblelight and infrared (IR) beams, unlike electric currents, pass through each other without interacting, so they don't cause interference. A single optical fibre has the capacity to carry three million telephone calls simultaneously. Mattias Borg / More than Moore Future of Electronics 1
3 Overview Problem with electrical interconnects Optical interconnect as a solution Building blocks needed Waveguides Modulators Routers Photodetectors Emitters Summary Mattias Borg / More than Moore Future of Electronics 2
4 The electrical interconnect Finite resistance and capacitance R = ρl HW, ρ Cu = 1.7x10-8 Ωm C = WLε rε 0 t di, ε r (SiO 2 ) = 3.9 Capacitative coupling Mattias Borg / More than Moore Future of Electronics 3
5 The RC line The finite resistance and capacitance of an electrical wire results in a delay v t = v 0 1 e t RC θ t Time for rise from 10% to 90% = 2.2RC Usually 50% rise is defined as delay = 0.7RC v T (t) v(t) time Mattias Borg / More than Moore Future of Electronics 4
6 A wire among many Capacitance is not easily determined Coupling to other wires in other layers Additional noise arises from cross-talk In multilayer interconnect networks, inter-wire capacitance may dominate Mattias Borg / More than Moore Future of Electronics 5
7 Scaling of interconnects How does the RC constant change when scaling down interconnect dimensions? R L C L L 2 = (R L /s 2 ) C L( (sl) 2 = R L C L L 2 RC constant does not change by scaling an interconnect Interconnect delay is nowadays larger than the gate delay... This already lead to a shift from Al to Cu + low-k. Optimum spacing between electrical interconnects when separation = lateral size of line Mattias Borg / More than Moore Future of Electronics 6
8 More metal layers a solution? Larger line dimensions possible higher up Long lines Larger lines further away from other lines/substrate Helps by reducing RC constant Not clear that this is a scalable solution 3D chip stacking presents a partial solution by reducing interconnect length drastically (TSVs). Mattias Borg / More than Moore Future of Electronics 7
9 On-chip optical interconnects? Electromagnetic waves: λ ~ 300 nm 8 µm (~ 100 THz) Electrical signal at 4 GHz ~ 10 cm Electrical signal at GHz carried on ~100 THz waves Capacitative cross talk ~ 0 No distance dependent signal decay or delay! Signals can cross without interfering Challenge: Require efficient transformation between electric optical signals. Low power, small latency, small size, integration with electronic processes. GHz e THz carrier photons GHz e - Mattias Borg / More than Moore Future of Electronics 8
10 Relevant properties of light Light confinement by refractive index (n) difference Interference of coherent light Mattias Borg / More than Moore Future of Electronics 9
11 Necessary building blocks Signal emitters Waveguides Routers /Gates Signal detectors Mattias Borg / More than Moore Future of Electronics 10
12 Dielectric waveguides Waveguides can be used to transport light on-chip Based on total internal reflection Typical materials: PMMA (n=1.5), SI 2 N 3 (n=2.0), Si (n=3.5) Band gap in Si limits minimum λ to 1090 nm. Mattias Borg / More than Moore Future of Electronics 11
13 Light confinement Number of optical modes depends on waveguide size Walls boundary conditions on waves Limits the bandwidth Evanescent field also outside of waveguide Can result in coupling to other waveguides Light lost in bends, depend on n difference Minimum size of waveguide related to optical wavelength Higher n smaller wave guides possible Mattias Borg / More than Moore Future of Electronics 12
14 Micro-resonators Evanescent coupling between structures Using interference to select wavelengths Ring resonators Optical path difference (OPD) = 2πrn For coupling OPD = mλ mλ = 2πrn Quality factor Q = m f free, a measure of bandwidth δf Mattias Borg / More than Moore Future of Electronics 13
15 Routing of light Routing: Sending signal where they should go Demultiplexer Multiplexer Optical add-drop multiplexer (OADM) Common attributes used Wavelength routing Polarization routing Phase routing Mattias Borg / More than Moore Future of Electronics 14
16 Signal Multiplexing Adding transmission channels by wavelength higher bandwidth In practice can be realized through ring resonators Mattias Borg / More than Moore Future of Electronics 15
17 Emitter Signal emitters Waveguides Routers /Gates Signal detectors Mattias Borg / More than Moore Future of Electronics 16
18 Integrated lasers in III-V Laser: Unidirectional, coherent light, single wavelength Microlaser (p-n diode) Quantum wells for efficiency Stimulated emission by electrical pumping to population inversion Cavity to enhance process until lasing Need direct band gap for low-threshold Need monolithic integration to Si chip Bonding or epitaxy! Mattias Borg / More than Moore Future of Electronics 17
19 Integration with waveguides Generated light needs to be coupled out Finited coupling efficiency Alignment precision important (hard to do with bonding) Ohira et al. Optics Express 2010 Mattias Borg / More than Moore Future of Electronics 18
20 Hybrid laser Si has indirect band gap, i.e. not suitable for lasing Hybrid approach Gain in bonded III-V structure Cavity in Si waveguide Proton implantation to focus current above waveguide No crucial alignment is necessary(?) Achieves lasing at 65 ma, max power of 1.8 mw Bowers et al. Optics Photonics News 2010 Mattias Borg / More than Moore Future of Electronics 19
21 Towards monolithic III-V lasers IMEC + UniGhent using ART InGaAs quantum wells in GaAs No lasing yet, but densely integrated on 300 mm Si and photoluminescence Kunert et al. APL 2016 Mattias Borg / More than Moore Future of Electronics 20
22 Signal encoding Amplitude modulation Frequency modulation Phase modulation Laser signal at µm as carrier wave Modulator needed device to encode signal onto carrier signal What encoding scheme is easiest to implement?? Electrical optical electrical Quantum transformation (1e 1p 1e) Mattias Borg / More than Moore Future of Electronics 21
23 Electro-optic switches Using interference (path length) to induce intensity switching Electric field changes refractive index delay Delay causes interference amplitude modulation n E = n rn 0 3 E + r ~ m/v Pockels effect Strain can give rise to Pockels effect in Si waveguides. Chmielak et al. Optics Express 2011 Mattias Borg / More than Moore Future of Electronics 22
24 Semiconductor photonic switches Electric field modulates absorption near band edge Typically multiple quantum well structures Quantum confined Stark effect Electric field reduces overlap between holes and electrons Mattias Borg / More than Moore Future of Electronics 23
25 Detector Signal emitters Waveguides Routers /Gates Signal detectors Mattias Borg / More than Moore Future of Electronics 24
26 Photodetector basics P-i-n diode Band gap set by the semiconducting material (lower limit on photon energy) Photons are absorbed in i-region electron-hole pair generation Diffusion to p- and n-regions and capture Reverse biasing enhances capture yield Mattias Borg / More than Moore Future of Electronics 25
27 Integrated photodetectors III-Vs and Ge are good absorbers in µm range. Absorption length 1-10 µm Integration on top of Si waveguide Evanescent light coupling Mode leaks from waveguide into device Alignment not so critical Ohira et al. Optics Express 2010 Mattias Borg / More than Moore Future of Electronics 26
28 Photodetector requirements Requirements: Low power consumption (low voltage), high operating speeds (10s of GHz) Small capacitance needed for low power and high speed i.e. Material with high absorption coefficient at 1-1.5µm Small lateral size low C Small thickness higher C, but shorter delay Close integration with electronic gate (small C load ) Proper design no amplification needed 1 fj C G ~ 1fF 1x1x0.1 µm 3 III-V photodetector C ~ 1 ff Energy in 1 fj 1 q fev Q = 1 fc V = Q/C tot ~ 2 V C tot = 0.5 ff Mattias Borg / More than Moore Future of Electronics 27
29 So most of the pieces are there Si waveguides work fine Bonded III-V microlasers, switches Signal emitters Waveguides Interferometers Routers /Gates Signal detectors Integrated Ge- III-V detectors Mattias Borg / More than Moore Future of Electronics 28
30 Summary Interconnect delay dominates delay Photonics and optical interconnects can solve this Efficient transformation from electrical to optical and back Needs a new toolset: Integrated III-V microlasers Switches/Modulators Waveguides Routers Integrated photodetectors Mattias Borg / More than Moore Future of Electronics 29
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