Contents. 1. Fundamentals of Amplification The Small-Signal Pentode 40. Acknowledgements. Some Useful Formulae

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1 Contents Preface Acknowledgements Some Useful Formulae vii ix x 1. Fundamentals of Amplification 1 1.1: Basic Theory of Valves 2 1.2: Valve Diodes 2 1.3: Triodes 4 1.4: Anode Resistance, r a 6 1.5: Amplification Factor, µ 6 1.6: Transconductance, g m 7 1.7: Amplification 9 1.8: The Load Line 9 1.9: Biasing : The Cathode Load Line : Harmonic Distortion : Intermodulation Distortion : Cut-Off Clipping : Grid-Current Clipping : The Effect of Load on Distortion : The Golden Ratio : The AC Load Line : The Cathode Bypass Capacitor : Equivalent Circuits : Input and Output Impedance : Output Impedance of a Triode Gain Stage : Input Impedance of a Triode Gain Stage : Valve Ratings and the Safe Operating Area : Component Ratings : Types of Resistor : Types of Capacitor The Small-Signal Pentode : Secondary Emission : The Suppressor Grid : The Screen Grid : The Effect of Screen Voltage : The Effect of Screen Current : The Anode/Screen Current Ratio : Deriving Grid Curves for Any Screen Voltage : A Simple Pentode Gain Stage : Effect of Screen and Cathode Bypassing 50 i

2 ii 2.10: Effect of Load on Distortion : Designing a Pentode Gain Stage the Easy Way : Pentodes Connected as Triodes : Pentode-Triode Morph Control : Variable Screen Bypass Noise, Hum and Microphonics : Noise : Noise in Resistors : Noise in Triodes : Noise in Pentodes : Noise Calculations for a Triode Gain Stage : Noise Calculations for Cascaded Triodes : Principles of Low-Noise Design : Hum : Electric Fields : Magnetic Fields : Transformers and Hum : Electric Shielding : Magnetic Shielding : Lead Dress : Rectifier-Induced Heater Hum : Electrical Heater Balancing : Heater-Cathode Leakage and Heater Elevation : DC Heaters : Microphony : Diode Noise Gate Coupling and Filters : Electromagnetic Guitar Pickups : Active Guitar Pickups : Piezoelectric Pickups : Equivalent Circuit of a Pickup : Electromagnetic Pickup Frequency Response : The Amplifier Input Network : High Impedance Input for Piezo Pickups : Interstage Filters : Understanding Filters with Simplified Bode Plots : High-Pass Filter : Low-Pass Filter : Attenuating High-Pass Filter : Attenuating Low-Pass Filter : High-Pass Shelving Filter : Low-Pass Shelving Filter : Band-Pass Filter : The Anode Bypass Capacitor : Blocking Distortion 100

3 4.19: Avoiding Blocking Distortion : DC Coupling : Level Shifting : Grid-Cathode Arc Protection Valves in Parallel : Anode Characteristics of Parallel Valves : Noise in Parallel Valves : The Matchless Input Stage : The Common-Anode Mixer : Dissimilar Cathode Circuits : Blend Control The Cathode Follower : Gain of the Cathode Follower : Output Impedance of the Cathode Follower : Avoiding Oscillation : Anode Characteristics : Using the New Anode Characteristics : Fixed Bias : Cathode Bias : DC Coupling : Heater Elevation : Input Resistance of the Cathode Follower : Input Capacitance of the Cathode Follower : The Pentode as a Cathode Follower : Transistor Followers : Cathode Followers in Guitar Amps : Controlling Cathode-Follower Clipping : Bootstrapping for More Gain The Cascode : Basic Operation of the Cascode : The Effect of Screen Voltage : Drawing the Anode Characteristics by Hand : Equations for the Cascode : Designing a Cascode the Easy Way : Grid-Leak Biasing and Screen Compression The Cathodyne Phase Inverter : The Cathodyne : Gain of the Cathodyne : Output Impedance : Designing a Cathodyne : Fixed Bias : Cathode Bias 149 iii

4 8.7: DC Coupling : Input Resistance of the Cathodyne : Input Capacitance of the Cathodyne : Avoiding Unpleasant Distortion Effects The Long-Tailed-Pair Phase Inverter : Basic Operation of the Long-Tailed Pair : Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) : Gain of the Long-Tailed Pair : Output Impedance : Designing a Long-Tailed Pair : Fixed Bias : Cathode Bias : DC Coupling : Dissimilar Anode Resistors : Input Resistance of the Long-Tailed Pair : Input Capacitance of the Long-Tailed Pair : Adding Global Negative Feedback : Presence Control : Resonance Control : Variable Feedback : Feedback-Free Resonance Control : Scale Control : Effects of Bias on the Long-Tailed Pair : Blocking Distortion Feedback : The Universal Feedback Equation : Virtual Earth : Local Feedback : Effect on Headroom : Effect on Distortion and Noise : Effect on Frequency Response : Effect on Input and Output Impedance : Global Feedback: Single-Ended Amplifier Example : Global Feedback: Push-Pull Amplifier Example : Feedback from Alternative Speaker Taps Tone Controls : Impedance Considerations : Impedance Scaling : Frequency Range : Simple Treble Controls : Simple Bass Controls : Simple Middle Controls : Tilt Control : The Bandmaster Tone Stack 203 iv

5 11.9: The Voigt Tone Stack : The James Tone Stack : The Passive Baxandall Tone Stack : The Bone Ray Tone Stack : The FMV Tone Stack : Tone Stack Defeat / Lift Effects Loops : Serial and Parallel Effects Loops : Placement of Effects : Line Levels : Effects Loop Input and Output Impedance : Passive Line Out : Active Line Out : Commercial Line-Out Circuits : The Recovery Stage : Practical Serial Effects Loop : Practical Parallel Effects Loops Signal Switching : Series and Shunt Switching : Clicks, Pops and Thumps : Light-Dependent Resistors : Relays : Audio Switching with Relays : Control Circuits for Relays : Power Supplies for Relay Circuits : Solid-State Relays : Audio Switching with SSRs : Control Circuits for SSRs : Power Supplies for SSRs : JFET Analog Switches : Audio Switching with JFETs : Control Circuits for JFET Analog Switches : Power Supplies for JFET Analog Switches : Some Two-Channel Switching Topologies : Switching More than Two Channels Topology : Low-Gain or Clean Topologies : A Low-Gain Preamp Design : An Approach to Medium and High-Gain Design : Medium-Gain Topologies : A Medium-Gain Preamp Design : High-Gain Topologies : A High-Gain Preamp Design : An Ultra-High-Gain Preamp Design 259 v

6 15. Grounding : Safety Earth : Ground Loops : Power-Supply Ripple Current : Power-Supply Smoothing Filters : Signal Currents : Ground Planes : Bus Grounding : Star Grounding : The Ground-to-Chassis Connection : Ground Lift : Grounding Multi-Channel Amplifiers : Miscellaneous Ground Connections 277 Bibliography 278 Index 281 vi

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