Practical Electrical Engineering

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1 Practical Electrical Engineering

3 Sergey N. Makarov Reinhold Ludwig Stephen J. Bitar Practical Electrical Engineering

4 Sergey N. Makarov ECE Department Worcester Polytechnic Institute Worcester, Washington, USA Reinhold Ludwig ECE Department Worcester Polytechnic Institute Worcester, Massachusetts, USA Stephen J. Bitar Worcester Polytechnic Institute Worcester, Massachusetts, USA ISBN ISBN (ebook) DOI / Library of Congress Control Number: Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. Printed on acid-free paper This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland

5 To Antonina, Margot, and Juliette

7 1 From Physics to Electric Circuits Electrostatics of Conductors Charges, Coulomb Force, and Electric Field Electric Potential and Electric Voltage Electric Voltage Versus Ground Equipotential Conductors Use of Coulomb s Law to Solve Electrostatic Problems Steady-State Current Flow and Magnetostatics Electric Current Difference Between Current Flow Model and Electrostatics Physical Model of an Electric Circuit Magnetostatics and Ampere s Law Origin of Electric Power Transfer Hydraulic and Fluid Mechanics Analogies Hydraulic Analogies in the DC Steady State Analogies for Alternating-Current (AC) Circuits Analogies for Semiconductor Circuit Components Part I DC Circuits: General Circuit Theory Operational Amplifier 2 Major Circuit Elements Resistance: Linear Passive Circuit Element Circuit Elements Versus Circuit Components Resistance υ-i Characteristic of the Resistance: Open and Short Circuits Power Delivered to the Resistance Finding Resistance of Ohmic Conductors vii

8 2.1.6 Application Example: Power Loss in Transmission Wires and Cables Physical Component: Resistor Application Example: Resistive Sensors Nonlinear Passive Circuit Elements Resistance as a Model for the Load Nonlinear Passive Circuit Elements Static Resistance of a Nonlinear Element Dynamic (Small-Signal) Resistance of a Nonlinear Element Electronic Switch Independent Sources Independent Ideal Voltage Source Circuit Model of a Practical Voltage Source Independent Ideal Current Source Circuit Model of a Practical Current Source Operation of the Voltage Source Application Example: DC Voltage Generator with Permanent Magnets Application Example: Chemical Battery Dependent Sources and Time-Varying Sources Dependent Versus Independent Sources Definition of Dependent Sources Transfer Characteristics Time-Varying Sources Ideal Voltmeter and Ammeter: Circuit Ground Ideal Voltmeter and Ammeter Circuit Ground: Fluid Mechanics Analogy Types of Electric Ground Ground and Return Current Absolute Voltage and Voltage Drop Across a Circuit Element Circuit Laws and Networking Theorems Circuit Laws: Networking Theorems Electric Network and Its Topology Kirchhoff s Current Law Kirchhoff s Voltage Law Power-Related Networking Theorems Port of a Network: Network Equivalence Series and Parallel Network/Circuit Blocks Sources in Series and in Parallel Resistances in Series and in Parallel Reduction of Resistive Networks Voltage Divider Circuit Application Example: Voltage Divider as a Sensor Circuit viii

9 3.2.6 Application Example: Voltage Divider as an Actuator Circuit Current Limiter Current Divider Circuit Wheatstone Bridge Superposition Theorem and Its Use Linear and Nonlinear Circuits Superposition Theorem or Superposition Principle Y (Wye) and Δ (Delta) Networks: Use of Superposition T and Π Networks: Two-Port Networks General Character of Superposition Theorem Circuit Analysis and Power Transfer Nodal/Mesh Analysis Importance of Circuit Simulators Nodal Analysis for Linear Circuits Supernode Mesh Analysis for Linear Circuits Supermesh Generator Theorems Equivalence of Active One-Port Networks: Method of Short/Open Circuit Application Example: Reading and Using Data for Solar Panels Source Transformation Theorem Thévenin s and Norton s Theorems: Proof Without Dependent Sources Application Example: Generating Negative Equivalent Resistance Summary of Circuit Analysis Methods Power Transfer Maximum Power Transfer Maximum Power Efficiency Application Example: Power Radiated by a Transmitting Antenna Application Example: Maximum Power Extraction from Solar Panel Analysis of Nonlinear Circuits: Generic Solar Cell Analysis of Nonlinear Circuits: Load Line Method Iterative Method for Nonlinear Circuits Application Example: Solving the Circuit for a Generic Solar Cell ix

10 5 Operational Amplifier and Amplifier Models Amplifier Operation and Circuit Models Amplifier Operation Application Example: Operational Amplifier Comparator Amplifier Circuit Model Ideal-Amplifier Model and First Summing-Point Constraint Negative Feedback Idea of the Negative Feedback Amplifier Feedback Loop: Second Summing-Point Constraint Amplifier Circuit Analysis Using Two Summing-Point Constraints Mathematics Behind the Second Summing-Point Constraint Current Flow in the Amplifier Circuit Multiple-Input Amplifier Circuit: Summing Amplifier Amplifier Circuit Design Choosing Proper Resistance Values Model of a Whole Voltage Amplifier Circuit Voltage Amplifier Versus Matched Amplifier Cascading Amplifier Stages Amplifier DC Imperfections and Their Cancellation DC-Coupled Single-Supply Amplifier: Virtual-Ground Circuit Difference and Instrumentation Amplifiers Differential Input Signal to an Amplifier Difference Amplifier: Differential Gain and Common-Mode Gain Application Example: Instrumentation Amplifier Instrumentation Amplifier in Laboratory General Feedback Systems Signal-Flow Diagram of a Feedback System Closed-Loop Gain and Error Signal Application of General Theory to Voltage Amplifiers with Negative Feedback Voltage, Current, Transresistance, and Transconductance Amplifiers with the Negative Feedback x

11 Part II Transient Circuits 6 Dynamic Circuit Elements Static Capacitance and Inductance Capacitance, Self-Capacitance, and Capacitance to Ground Application Example: ESD Parallel-Plate Capacitor Circuit Symbol: Capacitances in Parallel and in Series Application Example: How to Design a1-μf Capacitor? Application Example: Capacitive Touchscreens Self-Inductance (Inductance) and Mutual Inductance Inductance of a Solenoid With and Without Magnetic Core Circuit Symbol: Inductances in Series and in Parallel Application Example: How to Design a 1-mH Inductor? Dynamic Behavior of Capacitance and Inductance Set of Passive Linear Circuit Elements Dynamic Behavior of Capacitance Dynamic Behavior of Inductance Instantaneous Energy and Power of Dynamic Circuit Elements DC Steady State Behavior at Very High Frequencies Application Circuits Highlighting Dynamic Behavior Bypass Capacitor Blocking Capacitor Decoupling Inductor Amplifier Circuits With Dynamic Elements: Miller Integrator Compensated Miller Integrator Differentiator and Other Circuits Transient Circuit Fundamentals RC Circuits Energy-Release Capacitor Circuit Time Constant of the RC Circuit and Its Meaning Continuity of the Capacitor Voltage Application Example: Electromagnetic Railgun xi

12 7.1.5 Application Example: Electromagnetic Material Processing Application Example: Digital Memory Cell Energy-Accumulating Capacitor Circuit RL Circuits Energy-Release Inductor Circuit Continuity of the Inductor Current Energy-Accumulating Inductor Circuit Energy-Release RL Circuit with the Voltage Supply Application Example: Laboratory Ignition Circuit Switching RC Oscillator About Electronic Oscillators Bistable Amplifier Circuit with the Positive Feedback Triggering Switching RC Oscillator Oscillation Frequency Circuit Implementation: 555 Timer Single-Time-Constant (STC) Transient Circuits Circuits with Resistances and Capacitances Circuits with Resistances and Inductances Example of a Non-STC Transient Circuit Example of an STC Transient Circuit Method of Thévenin Equivalent and Application Example: Circuit with a Bypass Capacitor Description of the Second-Order Transient Circuits Types of Second-Order Transient Circuits Series-Connected Second-Order RLC Circuit Initial Conditions in Terms of Circuit Current and Capacitor Voltage Step Response and Choice of the Independent Function Parallel Connected Second-Order RLC Circuit Step Response of the Series RLC Circuit General Solution of the Second-order ODE Derivation of the Complementary Solution: Method of Characteristic Equation Finding Integration Constants Solution Behavior for Different Damping Ratios Overshoot and Rise Time Application Example: Nonideal Digital Waveform xii

13 Part III AC Circuits 8 Steady-State AC Circuit Fundamentals Harmonic Voltage and Current: Phasor Harmonic Voltages and Currents Phase: Leading and Lagging Application Example: Measurements of Amplitude, Frequency, and Phase Definition of a Phasor From Real Signals to Phasors From Phasors to Real Signals Polar and Rectangular Forms: Phasor Magnitude Operations with Phasors and Phasor Diagram Shorthand Notation for the Complex Exponent Impedance The Concept of Impedance Physical Meaning of Impedance Magnitude and Phase of Complex Impedance Application Example: Impedance of a Human Body Principles of AC Circuit Analysis AC Circuit Analysis: KVL, KCL, and Equivalent Impedances Complete Solution for an AC Circuit: KVL and KCL on Phasor Diagram Source Transformation Thévenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits Summary of AC Circuit Analysis at a Single Frequency Multifrequency AC Circuit Analysis: Superposition Theorem Filter Circuits: Frequency Response, Bode Plots, and Fourier Transform First-Order Filter Circuits and Their Combinations RC Voltage Divider as an Analog Filter Half-Power Frequency and Amplitude Transfer Function Bode Plot, Decibel, and Roll-Off Phase Transfer Function and Its Bode Plot Complex Transfer Function: Cascading Filter Circuits RL Filter Circuits Bandwidth of an Operational Amplifier Bode Plot of the Open-Loop Amplifier Gain xiii

14 9.2.2 Unity-Gain Bandwidth Versus Gain-Bandwidth Product Model of the Open-Loop AC Gain Model of the Closed-Loop AC Gain Application Example: Finding Bandwidth of an Amplifier Circuit Application Example: Selection of an Amplifier IC for Proper Frequency Bandwidth Introduction to Continuous and Discrete Fourier Transform Meaning and Definition of Fourier Transform Mathematical Properties of Fourier Transform Discrete Fourier Transform and Its Implementation Sampling Theorem Applications of Discrete Fourier Transform Application Example: Numerical Differentiation via the FFT Application Example: Filter Operation for an Input Pulse Signal Application Example: Converting Computational Electromagnetic Solution from Frequency Domain to Time Domain Second-Order RLC Circuits Theory of Second-Order Resonant RLC Circuits Self-Oscillating Ideal LC Circuit Series Resonant Ideal LC Circuit Series Resonant RLC Circuit: Resonance Condition Quality Factor Q of the Series Resonant RLC Circuit Bandwidth of the Series Resonant RLC Circuit Parallel Resonant RLC Circuit: Duality Construction of Second-Order RLC Filters Second-Order Band-Pass RLC Filter Second-Order Low-Pass RLC Filter Second-Order High-Pass RLC Filter Second-Order Band-Reject RLC Filter Second-Order RLC Filters Derived from the Parallel RLC Circuit RLC Circuits for Near-Field Communications and Proximity Sensors Near-Field Wireless Link Transmitter Circuit Receiver Circuit xiv

15 Application Example: Near-Field Wireless Link in Laboratory Application Example: Proximity Sensors AC Power and Power Distribution AC Power Types and Their Meaning Instantaneous AC Power Time-averaged AC Power Application Example: rms Voltages and AC Frequencies Around the World rms Voltages for Arbitrary Periodic AC Signals Average AC Power in Terms of Phasors: Power Angle Average Power for Resistor, Capacitor, and Inductor Average Power, Reactive Power, and Apparent Power Power Triangle Application Example: Wattmeter Power Factor Correction: Maximum Power Efficiency and Maximum Power Transfer Power Factor Correction Application Example: Automatic Power Factor Correction System Principle of Maximum Power Efficiency for AC Circuits Principle of Maximum Power Transfer for AC Circuits AC Power Distribution: Balanced Three-Phase Power Distribution System AC Power Distribution Systems Phase Voltages: Phase Sequence Wye (Y) Source and Load Configurations for Three-Phase Circuits Application: Examples of Three-Phase Source and the Load Solution for the Balanced Three-Phase Wye-Wye Circuit Removing the Neutral Wire in Long-Distance Power Transmission Power in Balanced Three-Phase Systems: Delta-connected Three-Phase Circuits Instantaneous Power Average Power, Reactive Power, and Apparent Power xv

16 Application Example: Material Consumption in Three-Phase Systems Balanced Delta-Connected Load Balanced Delta-Connected Source Electric Transformer and Coupled Inductors Ideal Transformer as a Linear Passive Circuit Element Electric Transformer Ideal Open-Circuited Transformer: Faraday s Law of Induction Appearance of Transformer Currents Ampere s Law Ideal Loaded Transformer Ideal Transformer Versus Real Transformer: Transformer Terminology Mechanical Analogies of a Transformer Analysis of Ideal Transformer Circuits Circuit with a Transformer in the Phasor Form Referred (Or Reflected) Source Network in the Secondary Side Referred (Or Reflected) Load Impedance to the Primary Side Transformer as a Matching Circuit Application Example: Electric Power Transfer via Transformers Some Useful Transformers Autotransformer Multiwinding Transformer Center-Tapped Transformer: Single-Ended to Differential Transformation Current Transformer Real-Transformer Model Model of a Nonideal Low-Frequency Transformer Model Parameters and Their Extraction Analysis of Nonideal Transformer Model Voltage Regulation and Transformer Efficiency About High-Frequency Transformer Model Model of Coupled Inductors Model of Two Coupled Inductors Analysis of Circuits with Coupled Inductors Coupling Coefficient Application Example: Wireless Inductive Power Transfer Application Example: Coupling of Nearby Magnetic Radiators xvi

17 Part IV Digital Circuits 13 Switching Circuits Principle of Operation Switch Concept Switch Position in a Circuit MOSFET Switches and Threshold Voltage Sketch of Transistor Physics Power Switching Circuits Switching Quadrants Switching a Resistive Load Switching a DC Motor One-Quadrant Switch for a DC Motor Half H-Bridge for a DC Motor Full H-Bridge for a DC Motor Application Example: Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) Motor Controller PWM Voltage Form Digital Switching Circuits NOT Gate or Logic Inverter NOR Gate and OR Gate NAND Gate and AND Gate Simple Combinational Logic Circuits: Switching Algebra Universal Property of NAND Gates: De Morgan s Laws Logic Circuit Analysis and Application Example: Logic Gate Motor Controller Logic Circuit Synthesis The Latch Analog-to-Digital Conversion Digital Voltage and Binary Numbers Introduction: ADC and DAC Circuits Analog Voltage Versus Digital Voltage Bit Rate, Clock Frequency: Timing Diagram Binary Numbers Hexadecimal Numbers ASCII Codes and Binary Words Tri-state Digital Voltage Digital-to-Analog Converter Digital-to-Analog Converter Circuit (A Binary-Weighted-Input DAC) Underlying Math and Resolution Voltage DAC Full-Scale Output Voltage Range, Resolution, and Accuracy Other DAC Circuits xvii

18 14.3 Sample-and-Hold Circuit: Nyquist Rate Analog-to-Digital Converter A Quick Look at an Analog Sinusoidal Voltage Sample-and-Hold Voltage Sample-and-Hold Circuit (SH Circuit) Nyquist Rate Analog-to-Digital Converter Flash ADC ADC Resolution in Bits, Full-Scale Input Voltage Range, and Voltage Resolution ADC Equation and Quantization Error Successive-Approximation ADC Embedded Computing Architecture of Microcontrollers A Generic Microcontroller Central Processing Unit Memory Input and Output Devices Timers Buses Universal Synchronous/Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (USART) Memory Organization of Memory Types of Memory Flash Memory in Embedded Devices Arduino Uno: An Embedded Microcontroller What Is Arduino? Arduino IDE Getting Started with Arduino IDE Arduino Language, Program Storage, and Basic Program Setup Compiling and Uploading Code to Arduino Uno Basic Arduino Syntax Data Types Assignment Statements and Their Features Arithmetic Operations Functions Libraries Objects. Application Example: A Servomotor Interfacing with IO Pins More Advanced Arduino Programming Conditional Statements Switch Statements xviii

19 Part V Loops Arrays and Strings Serial Communication Interrupts. Application Example: Emergency Motor Stop Square Wave and PWM Generation with Arduino Diode and Transistor Circuits 16 Electronic Diode and Diode Circuits Diode Operation and Classification Circuit Symbol and Terminals Three Regions of Operation Mechanical Analogy of Diode Operation Forward-Bias Region: Switching Diode Reverse-Bias Region: Varactor Diode Breakdown Region: Zener Diode Other Common Diode Types Diode Models Ideal-Diode Model: Method of Assumed States Constant-Voltage-Drop Model Exponential Model in the Forward-Bias Region and Its Use Load-Line Analysis Iterative Solution Linearization About a Bias Point: Small-Signal Diode Model Superposition Principle for Small-Signal Diode Model Diode Voltage Regulators and Rectifiers Voltage Reference and Voltage Regulator Voltage Regulator with Zener Diode Half-Wave Rectifier Full-Wave Rectifier with a Dual Supply Diode Bridge Rectifier Application Example: Automotive Battery-Charging System Application Example: Envelope (or Peak) Detector Circuit Diode Wave-Shaping Circuits Diode Clamper Circuit (DC Restorer) Diode Voltage Doubler and Multiplier Positive, Negative, and Double Clipper Transfer Characteristic of a Diode Circuit xix

20 17 Bipolar Junction Transistor and BJT Circuits Physical Principles and Operation Laws Physical Structure: Terminal Voltages and Currents Principle of Operation Operating Regions Active Region Saturation Region and Cutoff Region Transistor v i Dependencies Early Effect The pnp Transistor Large-Signal Circuit Models of a BJT Large-Signal Circuit Model of a BJT Large-Signal DC Circuit Model of a BJT Method of Assumed States Transistor Circuit Analysis Using the Method of Assumed States DC Transistor Bias Circuits β-independent Biasing and Negative Feedback Common Discrete-Circuit Bias Arrangement Other Bias Circuits Practical BJT Circuits at DC Constant-Current Sources: Active Region of Operation Voltage Follower (Voltage Buffer): Active Region of Operation BJT Switches: Saturation Region Application Example: Automotive BJT Dome Light Switch Application Example: Door Lock BJT Switch and Darlington Pair Small-Signal Transistor Amplifier Generic Voltage-Gain Amplifier Simplified Model of the BJT Common-Emitter Amplifier Small-Signal BJT Analysis and Superposition Analysis of Small-Signal Common-Emitter Amplifiers Application Example: Transistor Amplifier Bandwidth MOS Field-Effect Transistor (MOSFET) Principle of Operation and Threshold Voltage Physical Structure: Terminal Voltages and Currents Simplified Principle of Operation NMOS Capacitor xx

21 Voltage Across the Oxide Layer Before and at the Onset of Strong Inversion Voltage Across the Semiconductor Body Threshold Voltage PMOS Transistor Oxide Thicknesses and Capacitances in CMOS Processes Family Tree of FETs Theoretical Model of a MOSFET Test Circuit and Operating Regions Linear Subregion of Triode Region at Strong Inversion Nonlinear Subregion of Triode Region at Strong Inversion Saturation Region The v-i Dependencies PMOS Transistor Large-Signal MOSFET Model in Saturation Device Parameters in CMOS Processes MOSFET Switching and Bias Circuits Triode Region for Switching Circuits: Device Parameter Extraction Resistor-Switch Model in Triode Region Application Example: Output Resistance of Digital Logic Gates MOSFET Circuit Analysis at DC Application Example: Basic MOSFET Actuator MOSFET Amplifier MOSFET Common-Source Amplifier Voltage Transfer Characteristic Principle of Operation and Q-Point MOSFET Biasing for Amplifier Operation Small-Signal MOSFET Model and Superposition MOSFET Transconductance Analysis of Common-Source MOSFET Amplifier Erratum... E1 Index xxi

Chapter 8. Chapter 9. Chapter 6. Chapter 10. Chapter 11. Chapter 7

Chapter 8. Chapter 9. Chapter 6. Chapter 10. Chapter 11. Chapter 7 5.5 Series and Parallel Combinations of 246 Complex Impedances 5.6 Steady-State AC Node-Voltage 247 Analysis 5.7 AC Power Calculations 256 5.8 Using Power Triangles 258 5.9 Power-Factor Correction 261