FILM LANGUAGE AND ELEMENTS OF STYLE

Transcription

1 FILM LANGUAGE AND ELEMENTS OF STYLE When I was a kid, I thought that movies were made in an hour and a half and that they were shot in sequence. I was vaguely aware that there had to be a camera, but I imagined that it could change setups instantaneously.... It took a long time for me to realize that movies are made. I had to step back even further to notice that they are made of shots, that each shot is a unit in itself as well as part of the whole, and that it is possible for the way a film is shot to convey its meaning. Bruce F. Kawin, How Movies Work 52

2 Scope & Sequence A fundamental principle of The Story of Movies is that film is more than an industry, more than a showcase for stars. Film is a language. In this chapter, students understand that visual images can be read like other texts. They learn that the composition of a shot as well as camera distance, angle, lighting, and the placement of a shot in a sequence all affect how a person interprets the moving image. CHAPTER THREE 1 Because a film is a whole made up of many parts, lesson 1 begins with the smallest part the frame. Students tap prior knowledge and gain new knowledge of key principles of art composition, which they then apply to reading visual texts from To Kill a Mockingbird. In subsequent lessons, students study basic science principles of lighting and apply that to understand how a cinematographer creates various visual effects. By the end of the chapter, students will have acquired a vocabulary of film terms, including types of shots and editing techniques, and will be prepared to analyze multiple shots within a single scene. Lesson 1 Activity A Activity B Lesson 2 Activity A Activity B Activity C Lesson 3 Activity A Activity B Activity C Activity D Lesson 4 Activity A Activity B Activity C The Frame Camera Distances and Angles Understanding Composition Capturing Light and Movement on the Screen Properties of Light Creating Contrast, Depth, and Texture Camera Mounts and Movements Making a Scene Understanding Continuity How Music Communicates Sound Effects Editing To Kill a Mockingbird Putting It All Together Analyzing a Scene Cinematic Points of View Explicit and Implicit Information Mise-en-Scène Film Study Standards 1.0 Film Language. Students learn to read and interpret visual text by developing a film vocabulary, identifying editing techniques, and analyzing film elements within selected scenes. 5.0 Cross-Curricular Connections. Students first tap their knowledge of other disciplines to study a film. They then apply what they have learned about film to other disciplines, making connections between film and literature/language arts, film and history/social studies, film and other arts, and film and sciences. 53

3 Lesson 1 Understanding Composition Teacher Overview A filmmaker is more than a good technician who understands how to operate a camera and control lights. A filmmaker must also have an artistic understanding of what makes a good composition. In this lesson, students learn basic principles of art composition, specifically the content and thoughtful arrangement of elements within a frame to suggest meaning. Activity A begins with a discussion of Watson and the Shark, a famous work of art from the 18th century by American painter John Singleton Copley. Through a guided discussion by the teacher, students discuss the painting s narrative elements and then identify visual symbols the artist used to suggest this narrative. They then complete a similar interpretation of a frame from the trial scene of To Kill a Mockingbird, again identifying elements of composition that communicate meaning. Activity B presents six different types of shots, each dependent on the position of the camera in relation to the subject within the frame. Camera distances and angles are among the filmmaker s communication tools, and the use of these tools determines how the audience will interpret the visual text. Learning Outcomes Students will: define composition; understand that every frame, or movie still, has a point of emphasis or center of interest; explain how the arrangement of objects or people within the frame creates meaning; identify four camera distance shots long shot, medium, close-up, and extreme close-up; define perspective and explain how high-angle and low-angle shots change perspective. Key Terms (Note: Most terms are defined within the activity text that follows. You may also refer to the glossary.) frame, composition, point of emphasis, close-up, extreme close-up, medium shot, long shot, establishing shot, high-angle shot, low-angle shot Lesson 1 Materials Activity Print DVD Activity A The Frame Visual-Thinking Activity 3-1: Watson and the Shark Visual-Thinking Activity 3-2: What s in a Frame? Still 3-1: Watson and the Shark Still 3-2: Mayella on the Witness Stand Activity B Camera Distances and Angles Graphic Organizer 3-1: Camera-to-Subject Distances Graphic Organizer 3-2: Camera-to-Subject Angles Graphic Organizer 3-3: Multiple Cameras = One Shot Visual-Thinking Activity 3-3: Shots and Significance Stills 3-3, A F: Shots and Significance 54

4 Concept The composition, or arrangement of elements, of a single frame of film communicates meaning. 1 Engage Display Still 3-1: Watson and the Shark, a painting completed in 1778 by American artist John Singleton Copley, which is on permanent exhibit in the National Gallery in Washington, D.C. Watson and the Shark is based on a true story. Students can learn more about this story and the painting by logging on to The Story of Movies Web site. The painting is narrative because it suggests conflict as well as action that has occurred and is yet to occur. First, ask students to provide single words that describe the painting. Record these words on the chalkboard or overhead projector. These may include but are not limited to danger, death, shark, heroes, suspense. Distribute Visual-Thinking Activity 3-1: Watson and the Shark. Discuss students observations as recorded on their activity sheets. Recommended answers are below. 1. What is the first thing that catches your attention in this painting? Answers will vary; some may say the figure with the boat hook, but most are likely to say the young man in the water and the men reaching for him. This is not accidental. Explain that this area is the foreground of the painting. It has more brightness than the area just to the right or left. As a result, more details are visible. Emphasize that the two men reaching down also draws the eye to what they are reaching for. 2. Identify three different actions captured in this single image. The rescuers reaching for the young man in the water, the man thrusting the boat hook, the shark swimming with open jaws toward the young man. 3. Did you have difficulty at first seeing the shark in the foreground (or lower half) of the painting? If so, why do you think this was the case? The lower right corner is dark compared to the left side of the frame. 4. Why didn t the painter show the whole shark in bright light? Answers will vary. One interpretation may be that the shark is mysterious and a creature of the deep. Others may respond that the painter wanted the people viewing the painting to wonder at first what is happening before they actually saw and then understood the situation, thereby creating suspense. Also, by putting the shark s back part in darkness, its front end is more visible by contrast and appears more menacing. 5. What is in the background (or upper portion) of the frame? A harbor scene. Point out that the background is placid or calm compared to the turbulent action in the foreground. 6. What has happened in the moments prior to this one captured on canvas? Answers will vary. The young man somehow fell into the water and lost his clothes. There may be a larger boat somewhere outside the frame from which these rescuers have come. It is unlikely that they were on shore and responded to the youth s cries for help. 7. What will happen next? We cannot know just by looking at the painting, but students may discover the fate of the young man by participating in the Take 2 Web activity, Who Was Watson? Explain & Explore Define composition and share this information about composition with students: Composition is the arrangement of all the elements that contribute to the appearance of a picture. The elements work together to create meaning. 55

5 Watson and the Shark is a painting, and so its composition is static. That means no matter how long you stare at it, nothing is going to change. In this one picture, the young man will never be rescued. Composition in motion pictures works along the same principles of design as composition in a painting. However, a motion picture image is not static. It is dynamic. That means it is always changing. Emphasize the importance of composition in telling a story visually. Scenes are made up of shots, and shots are made up of single images called frames. Composition is part of how the filmmaker tells the story. Learning to identify elements of composition, therefore, is an important visual-literacy skill. Display Still 3-2: Mayella on the Witness Stand. While this image is displayed, define frame and point of emphasis. A frame is a single photograph on a strip of motion-picture film. Identifying elements within a single frame is the first step in learning how to read moving images. The point of emphasis is the object or person that is most important. It is the thing the photographer/cinematographer wants the audience to notice. Distribute Visual-Thinking Activity 3-2: What s in a Frame? The questions on this worksheet relate to Still 3-2: Mayella on the Witness Stand. Discuss the questions. Recommended answers are below. Answer Key for Visual-Thinking Activity 3-2: What s in a Frame? Identifying Details 1. What do you see in this frame? List all people, objects or props, and other details. The courtroom scene shows the judge behind Mayella, who is on the witness stand. Atticus and Tom Robinson are at the defense table to the left. Behind them are the people who have come to see the trial. To the left is the jury box with members of the jury. To the right is the prosecutor and his table, and behind the bar is Bob Ewell. Objects include an American flag, Atticus s briefcase and papers, a calendar on the wall. To the judge s left is another flag, which some students might correctly guess is the flag of Alabama. Analyzing Details 2. Where has the director placed the camera in order to get this shot? The camera is above the people and to the rear, slightly angled, so most likely it is in the rear of the balcony. 3. Who, if anyone, is the point of emphasis in this shot? The judge and Mayella are the only characters facing forward. Everyone else is looking at them, or more specifically, at Mayella. This emphasizes her and the importance of her testimony, which is about to begin. 4. What is the purpose of this shot? To provide an overview of the courtroom. Emphasize, however, that those sitting in the balcony would be African Americans and the children, and so the camera is showing the courtroom from their point of view. Emphasize this important detail about composition: Every composition has a point of emphasis, or center of interest. In Watson and the Shark, the point of emphasis is the attempted rescue, that is, the young man in the water and the two men reaching for him. In the frame of Mayella on the witness stand, as discussed above, the point of emphasis is Mayella. Even though she appears small, her testimony will determine Tom Robinson s fate. View Still 3-1: Watson and the Shark again. This time ask students to identify some of the lines within the painting. These include the diagonal line of the boat hook in the upper right of the frame, the diagonal line of what appears to be the boat oar in the middle left of the frame, and the vertical lines of the ships masts in the background. Note also the black man s arm, which leads the eye down to the body. 56

6 Share this information with students: Lines are elements of composition. The human eye tends to follow lines. A painter or photographer uses lines to guide the viewer s eye around a composition. In Watson and the Shark, for example, the boat hook draws our attention down to the water, where we see the shark that we may not at first have noticed. The line that is the oar directs us to the rescuers reaching for the boy. Even the boy s arm, reaching upward, is a type of line. The arm directs our attention to the man with the boat hook. In this way the painter controls what the person viewing the painting sees. The same is true in moving-image composition. The cinematographer uses lines to control what the audience sees. 1 Display Still 3-2: Mayella on the Witness Stand again. Ask students to identify the lines at work in this composition. These include the horizontal lines of the bench rails and the diagonal rail in front of the jury that directs our eye toward Mayella and the judge behind her. Close Share this statement from director Douglas Trumbull with students and ask them to explain, either through class discussion or through a short freewriting activity, what he means: A movie is a series of still photographs shown in rapid succession. When you understand what you can do with one photograph, you can then understand what you can do with the rest of the film. Who Was Watson? The painting Watson and the Shark is based on a true story. Learn whether the young man survived his ordeal at sea, as well as more about the composition of the painting by going to The Story of Movies Web site at Concept Filmmakers use camera distances and angles to direct the viewers attention to the object of greatest significance within the frame or shot and to suggest meaning. Engage Remind students that the title of this chapter includes the term film language. Ask them to respond to this question: How do you communicate different ideas using a camera? Teachers need not explore the question in detail, but should touch upon the main idea that the camera selects what the audience sees and how. That includes angles and distances. Explain & Explore Distribute and display Graphic Organizer 3-1: Camera-to-Subject Distances. Ask students to explain why the word subject on the graphic organizer appears larger as the camera moves closer. Define distance as the size and closeness of the subject. Distances range from extreme close-up to long shot. Review three kinds of shots on the graphic organizer as suggested below. Close-Up Shot A close-up allows the cinematographer to focus the audience s attention on a specific detail. This detail fills the entire frame. Faces, hands, or individual objects are often shown in close-up or extreme close-up. Filmmakers use a closeup or extreme close-up shot for a reason and not just to play with the zoom lens! The close-up provides what the filmmaker believes is necessary or meaningful information for the audience. 57

7 Medium Shot A medium shot reveals more of the subject. If the subject is a person, a medium shot usually shows that person from the waist up. Long Shot A long shot is often called an establishing shot because it shows the subject in its surroundings and establishes the setting. In long shots, the subject generally appears small in relation to the surroundings. Distribute and display Graphic Organizer 3-2: Camera-to-Subject Angles. Define angle as the way the camera views the subject. Angles range from high to low. Filmmakers use angles to create interest but also to suggest meaning or relationships. Review the types of angles on the graphic organizer as suggested below. High-Angle Shot In a high-angle shot, the camera is above the subject and looks down. This can make the subject appear small, weak, or unimportant. Low-Angle Shot A low-angle shot looks up at the subject and can make the subject seem large or impressive. Eye-Level Shot This shot looks at the subject on approximately the same level as the subject. Ask: How are camera angles different from camera distances? Explain that both angles (high to low) and distances (near to far) create different types of visual effects. The placement of the camera is critical in creating these effects. Distribute and display Graphic Organizer 3-3: Multiple Cameras = One Shot. Review the graphic organizer to emphasize the following important point about filmmaking during production: Often the director films a scene from multiple angles and distances and then later, in post-production, decides which shots are the best. Explain that the left side of the graphic, On the Set, illustrates the different placements of three cameras in relationship to the subject. The right side of the graphic, In the Studio, illustrates the editing process. Share this information with students: A single camera captures a single image. Shooting a film, however, involves more than placing actors on a stage and recording their performance. When filming a movie, the director generally uses multiple cameras to capture the same action from different distances and angles. The editor selects the best shots from one or more of the cameras. The decision of which footage from which camera to use depends in part on the quality of the camerawork and lighting, the quality of the acting performance, and the overall meaning of the shot. Distribute Visual-Thinking Activity 3-3: Shots and Significance. Students will use this sheet while analyzing camera distances and angles for movie stills displayed on the DVD. Display Stills 3-3, A F: Shots and Significance to illustrate camera distances and angles. Explain that distances and angles give filmmakers ways to draw attention to the object of greatest significance in the frame. Allow students time to record their responses to each still before moving on to the next. Recommended answers follow. 58

8 1 A B C D E F Answer Key for Visual-Thinking Activity 3-3: Shots and Significance Still A B C D E F Type of Shot Medium, low-angle High-angle, medium shot High-angle Eye-level, medium Close-up Long shot Object of Greatest Significance Tom Robinson, because he is in the foreground; Atticus is smaller, and the people in the balcony are even smaller. Dill and Scout crouching. By photographing them from above, the cinematographer makes them appear somewhat smaller, and this suggests vulnerability. Jem and Scout, because they are in a somewhat vulnerable position in the Radley yard. Bob Ewell s hand, which seemingly reaches out toward Atticus s children inside the car. Right in front of the viewer, it seems most menacing. The spelling bee medal in Jem s hand is the only thing the viewer sees. The CU is the cinematographer s way of saying to the audience, Notice this! It s important. No one thing is emphasized except the emptiness of the street. Jem is alone. Close Ask students to make a connection between the information they learned in this activity and television commercials. How can they apply what they have learned about camera angles and distances to the commercials they may see on television? 59

9 Lesson 2 Capturing Light and Movement on the Screen Teacher Overview In this lesson, students focus on two additional elements of composition light and movement. Both light and movement create meaning and can trigger audience responses. Light draws attention to key, or principal, areas within the frame. The careful control of light can produce shadows that conceal details and create moods, suggest realism, and direct the audience s attention to points of emphasis. Activity A begins with a simple in-class science activity in which students manipulate light from an ordinary table lamp. In this way they begin to understand basic properties of light that all cinematographers know. They then use this knowledge to identify ways cinematographers control light and, thereby, what the audience sees. Activity B presents additional information about visual elements, specifically how cinematographers create contrast and the illusion of depth and texture. Likewise, movement either of the camera or of the subject within the frame is also significant and never accidental. For example, movement toward the camera can create a sense of power and dominance. Movement away from the camera creates emotional distance. Movement of a subject from the light into shadow might suggest a character s shift into a troubled state of mind or a frightening situation. In activity C, students identify types of movements and then practice interpreting the meaning of those movements. Learning Outcomes Students will: define three principles of lighting a frame direction, intensity, and quality of light; distinguish between high-key lighting and low-key lighting; distinguish between contrast, depth, and texture in black-and-white images; understand that movement in a shot both conveys information and draws the audience s attention to important details; identify and analyze movement in a shot. Key Terms (Note: Most terms are defined within the activity text that follows. You may also refer to the glossary.) light source, key light, high-key lighting, low-key lighting, direction of light, backlighting, under lighting, side lighting, front lighting, intensity of light, quality of light, diffuse light, hard light, soft light, medium light, contrast, depth, texture, fixed camera, pan, tilt, zoom, mobile camera, dolly, tracking shot, crane Lesson 2 Materials Activity Print DVD Activity A Properties of Light Activity B Creating Contrast, Depth, and Texture Activity C Camera Mounts and Movements Group Activity 3-4: Properties of Light Graphic Organizer 3-4: What Is Light Intensity? Graphic Organizer 3-5: Three Ways to Control Light Visual-Thinking Activity 3-5: Light and Shadow Graphic Organizer 3-6: What Is Contrast? Graphic Organizer 3-7: What Are Depth and Texture? Graphic Organizer 3-8: Camera Movements Screening Sheet 3-1: What s in Motion, the Camera or the Subject? Group Activity 3-6, Enrichment: Movement as Language Stills 3-4, A D: Light and Shadow Still 3-5: Putting Scout to Bed Film Clip 3-1: What s in Motion, the Camera or the Subject? 60

10 Concept Light draws attention to key, or principal, areas in the frame. Light and shadows are never accidental but are used by the director as conscious decisions to control what the audience sees. 1 Engage Ask students to describe the light in their classroom. Ask: From where is the light in this room coming? What is the intensity of the electric lights in this room? Is the light harsh or soft or balanced? Depending on your classroom, the answers will vary. Most likely the light source is overhead fluorescent fixtures. Next, turn off the lights. Ask students to describe the lighting in the room now. If there is natural lighting, where is its source the windows? The hallway? Ask students to describe the intensity and quality of the natural lighting in the room. Compare it to the electric lights. What is the difference in quality? Emphasize this critical point: The use of light helps us to see. In motion pictures, the use of light controls not only what we see but also how we see people, places, and objects. Explain & Explore Distribute Group Activity 3-4: Properties of Light. The three simple activities on this sheet illustrate a few basic principles of light. Students will work with a partner and record their observations on the activity sheet. You may stop after each activity, or allow students to complete all three before discussing their observations. Students descriptions will vary; accept all reasonable responses. Then explain the basic scientific principles provided below. Science Principle in Activity A Light radiates, or spreads out in all directions, from its source. The lampshade controls the way the light radiates. Cinematographers understand this basic principle and know how to control the direction of light from its source. Science Principle in Activity B Light travels in a straight path unless something changes its course. The ball is opaque, and so light cannot travel through it. As a result, the ball blocks some but not all of the light and creates a shadow. As the object moves farther away from the light source, the amount of light radiation increases and the depth of the shadow created by the ball decreases. Cinematographers understand this as well. When photographing a shot for a film, they plan the layout of the shot so that the light will strike certain objects but not others, creating shadows. Science Principle in Activity C The intensity, or quantity, of light creates different visual effects. The lower-wattage bulb creates a less sharp shadow than the higher-wattage bulb. (Note: Teachers can extend this activity to explore quality of light by repeating the steps in the activity using two different-colored bulbs pink and yellow, each of which will create slightly different visual effects.) Distribute and display Graphic Organizer 3-4: What Is Light Intensity? Explain that key light is the motivating source of light in a shot, meaning it is the major source of light. The sun, a window, or a lamp are each examples. Review additional concepts on the graphic organizer as suggested below. High-Key Lighting High-key lighting is a brightly lit shot in which more visual detail is obvious. The mood is more upbeat, cheerful. Low-Key Lighting Low-key lighting means less light is used, therefore the audience sees less visual detail. The shadows and high contrast create a mysterious or secretive mood or atmosphere. Distribute and display Graphic Organizer 3-5: Three Ways to Control Light. Now that students understand basic principles of light, they can apply this knowledge to moving-picture images. By controlling the direction of the light and its intensity and quality, cinematographers create various visual effects. Discuss the three key points on the graphic organizer as suggested below. Direction of Light The angle of the light creates different effects. Backlighting, for example, can minimize shadows or, if bright enough, can create a silhouette. Under lighting of a subject, from the bottom up, or side lighting creates different types of 61

11 shadows across the subject, which in turn affects how the audience sees it. Front lighting is placing the light source in front of the subject. Intensity of Light By controlling the amount of light, a cinematographer can control what the audience sees. Light intensity can focus attention on details of most importance while obscuring other, less-significant details. Sometimes, however, the cinematographer wants to direct the audience s attention to the darkness. A person standing in shadows, for example, may suggest the person s dark or mysterious intentions. Quality of Light A cinematographer can create a soft lighting effect by diffusing the light so that it doesn t strike the subject directly. Hard beams of light, on the other hand, strike the subject directly and result in a harsh, even glaring effect. For clarification, ask students whether candlelight would be hard or soft, whether sunlight at noon on a cloudless day would be hard or soft. Encourage students to provide additional examples. Distribute Visual-Thinking Activity 3-5: Light and Shadow. Explain that by controlling the direction, intensity, and quality of light, the cinematographer tells a story visually. Stills 3-4, A D go with this activity. Display Stills 3-4, A D: Light and Shadow and discuss the questions. Recommended answers are below. A B C D Answer Key for Visual-Thinking Activity 3-5: Light and Shadow Still Type of Light Light Source and Direction A B C Low-key Low-key Low-key The light source appears to be front and to the right because the children s faces are illuminated, not in shadow. The area around the children, however, is in darkness, and less visual detail is seen. The low-key light and the shadows of bushes on their faces underscore the fact that they are spying on Atticus. The light source is to the right. Note the shadow of the lamp, the railing, and Atticus s chair on the jail wall. A light is directly on Atticus and as a result, he is the point of emphasis and the amount of visual detail is greater. Ewell s face is half in shadow, indicating side lighting on his face. Scout s face is also illuminated. That means the light source is different for each character, one light coming from the right and the other from the left, allowing us to focus on both of them. Partially shadowing Ewell s face controls how the audience sees him. He is not clearly revealed, and that underlines his intentions in this scene unclear. Does he mean to harm the children or not? 62

12 Still Type of Light Light Source and Direction D High-key Since we are inside the courthouse and it would be lit by overhead lamps, the lighting is bright, allowing the audience to see a great deal of visual detail, from the balcony to the ground floor. Foreground and background are equally lit so we can get a full grasp of the setting. There are few shadows. 1 Close Ask: Why would a filmmaker want to control what the audience sees? Focus discussion on the main idea that by controlling the light, the filmmaker can convey certain meanings, such as a character s state of mind or the danger or mysteriousness of a setting or situation. Controlling light, therefore, is a critical element of composition. Concept Contrast, depth, and texture are three design elements a cinematographer may use to communicate with the audience, including creating points of emphasis and realistic detail. Engage Hold up two sheets of colored construction paper, one black and the other a different color red or green, or yellow. Ask students which of the two sheets are devoid of color. Most students are likely to say that the black sheet has no color. Challenge their thinking by asking Is black a color? Is white a color? Are there different shades of black? of white? Explain that filming in black and white does not mean the absence of color. A black-and-white palette has its own range of shades that contribute to meaningful and artistic images. That palette is limited to a variety of gray tones. Also, filming in black and white requires the careful use of light and camera angles. The characteristics or qualities associated with both color and black-and-white film include the following contrast, depth, and texture. Explain & Explore Distribute and display Graphic Organizer 3-6: What Is Contrast? to introduce students to this basic principle of art. Review the concept on the graphic organizer as suggested below. Contrast In photography, contrast is the difference between light and dark areas. Illustrate this concept by placing the red, green, or yellow sheet of construction paper flat but slightly angled on top of the black sheet. Contrast creates edges and lines. Whether diagonal, horizontal, vertical, or curved, lines focus the eye on points of emphasis. A cinematographer understands contrast and uses it to create points of emphasis within the movie frame. Distribute and display Graphic Organizer 3-7: What Are Depth and Texture? to introduce students to these two additional art concepts. Review the terms as suggested below. Depth In photography, depth is distance, or rather the illusion of distance. Illustrate this by folding the bottom third of the black sheet of paper onto itself. Black against black creates no contrast and no depth. A cinematographer understands principles of depth and creates the illusion of depth in a variety of ways. These include using lines to suggest distance, using lighting that casts shadows, and placing objects or people in the foreground, mid-ground, or background of a frame. Movement of objects within the frame also creates a sense of depth. An object becomes smaller when moving from foreground to background or larger when moving from background to foreground. 63

13 Texture Texture is what something feels like when you touch it. Again, use the construction paper to illustrate the concept. Both sheets of construction paper are flat and smooth. Smoothness is a texture. In real life, a person could pick up a rock and feel its roughness, slip a hand into water and feel its silkiness. In photography, however, texture must be suggested through visual design or close focus. The reason is that a rock is a three-dimensional object but a photograph or movie screen is, like the construction paper, two-dimensional. In photography, texture is the graininess of an image. Grain creates patterns and shapes that give the illusion of a variety of textures. Emphasize that both depth and texture create realism in composition, so that the audience members forget they are looking at a flat movie screen and instead feel as if the image on the screen is three-dimensional. Display Still 3-5: Putting Scout to Bed to illustrate the three key concepts of contrast, depth, and texture. Discuss the photograph as suggested below. Close Still 3-5 : Putting Scout to Bed Contrast: Light in the left side of the frame is focused on Atticus. He is in the background and smaller than Calpurnia, who is in the foreground, just outside the door. But his dark suit against the light hallway focuses attention on him. Although Cal is mostly in shadow, the way the light falls on her skirt, collar, and hat creates contrast. Depth: The placement of Atticus in the background, making him smaller, and Calpurnia in the foreground, making her larger, creates depth, as does the brightness of the light fixture in the hall. Also, the larger door in the foreground framing the smaller door in the background adds depth. Texture: Clapboards and shadows create texture, but so does the fabric of Cal s skirt and the wooden grate across the screen door. The screen itself creates a sort of fuzzy graininess that is textural. Ask students why a director might choose to film in black and white. Share with students this information: In 1961, when this film was made, most movies (but not all) were filmed in color. Director Robert Mulligan has said that he could not imagine filming this particular story, To Kill a Mockingbird, in color, in part because the use of black and white worked so well to communicate the dramatic themes of the film, including the mystery of Boo Radley and the racism of Maycomb. In addition, he felt black and white conveys a sense of realism. Ask students to suggest other reasons that directors would choose to use black and white, such as to portray good versus evil. Concept Movement creates the illusion of three dimensions, introduces information to the audience, and often draws attention to important details within the frame. Engage Share this information about movement with students: Just as camera angles and distances and lighting are visual elements in composition, so, too, is movement. Movement creates the illusion of three dimensions, allows the director to tell a story from multiple viewpoints, and adds visual interest. Movement introduces information about the subject and allows the cinematographer to show action from multiple points of view. Motion of a figure (either human or object) within the frame can also direct our attention to an important detail and create suspense. 64

14 Explain & Explore Explain that there are two basic methods of capturing movement on film: 1. Filming the subject as it moves within the frame while the camera remains in a stationary position 2. Moving the camera itself to follow the subject Distribute and display suggested below. Graphic Organizer 3-8: Camera Movements. Review key points on the graphic organizer as Fixed Camera The camera is stationary, in that it is mounted in one place. The camera itself, however, can pan, meaning it moves from side to side; tilt, meaning it moves up and down; or zoom, meaning it moves forward or backward. Mobile Camera The camera is mounted on a platform that can move around the set. A number of devices enable the camera to move forward, backward, to circle, or to sweep. A dolly is a type of platform with wheels. It allows the camera to move throughout the set. A tracking shot allows the camera to move along with the subject at various speeds. The film crew actually lays rails to allow the camera to roll smoothly. The camera operator may ride on the platform with the camera, or the crew may operate the camera by means of remote control. A crane shot is one where the camera is mounted on a boom or a mechanical arm and so can move through the air. Cinematographers often use this mechanical means for getting an overhead, or high-angle, shot of a large crowd, such as at concerts or rallies. 1 Distribute Screening Sheet 3-1: What s in Motion, the Camera or the Subject? Review the directions. Encourage students to jot their observations while viewing the clips. View Film Clip 3-1: What s in Motion, the Camera or the Subject? Discuss students observations. Answers are below. Answer Key for Screening Sheet 3-1: What s in Motion, the Camera or the Subject? Shot The staircase from The Cameraman The chariot race from Ben Hur Shots of the city from West Side Story The shadow from To Kill a Mockingbird Describe the movement. A man runs down many flights of stairs and then partway up again. A man is driving a chariot in a race. He is moving within the frame. Then he is filling the frame. At one point, the chariot seems to roll over the camera on the ground. There are two types of movements here overhead movement, as if a plane is flying over the city, and the movements of cars on the bridge and in the streets and of children playing in a playground. Jem crawls on the porch, and a shadow enters the frame then moves out of the frame Fixed or Mobile Camera? Mobile and fixed. The camera follows the man s actions, slowly moving downward as he descends the stairs, stopping, then moving upward as he climbs back up. Mobile and fixed. The mobile camera is one that moves with the chariot drivers, keeping pace with them. The fixed camera shots are those where the horses and chariots pass into and out of the frame. Mobile. The camera, positioned overhead, moves slowly in all shots. In the final shot, the camera is fixed but zooms to a close up of the teenage boy who is snapping his fingers. Fixed. In each shot, the camera remains in the same position. 65

15 Emphasize this key point: Movement of a figure within the frame can focus the viewer s attention on an important detail. For example, in the scene where Jem, Scout, and Dill are spying on Boo, Jem is staring through the window. He at first does not see but the audience does the movement of a shadow into the frame. Movement within the frame allows the audience to see what the character does not and so creates suspense. In that same scene, when the shadow moves away and out of the frame, the audience knows that the immediate danger has passed. Enrichment Explain the assignment by sharing the information below with students. Now that you understand basic camera movements and have practiced identifying movements in shots, you are ready to search for and identify examples of movement in To Kill a Mockingbird. In this activity you will work in a group to select two shots from the film to analyze. You will make a presentation to the class, first explaining the use of movement and then screening the shots. (Note: Some teachers may wish to adapt this assignment by allowing students to select scenes from films other than To Kill a Mockingbird. In this way, they will apply what they have learned to other viewing experiences.) Distribute Group Activity 3-6, Enrichment: Movement as Language. Teachers may wish to conduct this activity with small groups in class or assign this as independent screening. The activity requires the use of a DVD player and a DVD copy of To Kill a Mockingbird. While examples of movement from this film will vary with each group, depending on the scenes they select, below are recommended scenes that provide excellent examples of movement. DVD chapter 6 DVD chapter 8 DVD chapter 15 DVD chapter 16 Atticus s Watch (Camera moves through the window into Scout s room.) Boo Radley s House (Subjects move within the frame.) The Best Shot in This County (Subjects move within the frame.) At the Robinsons (Camera moves as the car drives away.) Close Emphasize that movement within a frame is never accidental but an intentional decision of the director and the cinematographer as a means of communicating to the audience. Testing Light Sources and Positions Conduct an experiment that tests this statement: The intensity of light and the position of the light source create different visual effects. Find out how to proceed by going to The Story of Movies Web site at 66

16 Teacher Overview Just as the cinematographer controls the camera, telling the audience where to look, so too does the film editor shape what and how the audience sees. This lesson presents the final two elements of film composition editing and sound. Editing is all about choice. To create from streams of raw footage a story that progresses logically and maintains the audience s interest, the editor considers three things the intended meaning of the scene, pacing, and continuity. In activities A and B, students learn that pacing involves the duration of a shot or scene, and that continuity is piecing together the shots and scenes so that a logical chronology emerges. Both are necessary not only for a story to make sense but also to create suspense and keep the audience engaged. In activities C and D, students review basic characteristics of sound and use that knowledge to better understand how music and sound contribute to the overall meaning of the film. Music and sound convey information and affect the response of the audience. To achieve this effect requires careful planning or designing of the soundtrack. Too many sounds heard simultaneously will confuse the audience and just revert to noise. Learning Outcomes Students will: define basic terms associated with editing techniques, including montage; explain the meaning of continuity in a scene; identify transitional devices the editor uses to move smoothly from one scene to another; define four principles of music: rhythm, pitch, dynamics, and tone; understand that sound, like music, has volume and pitch and must be carefully controlled in order to convey information or affect audience response; distinguish between visible, or on-screen, and invisible, or off-screen, sounds. Key Terms (Note: Most terms are defined within the activity text that follows. You may also refer to the glossary.) rough cut, pacing, reel time, real time, transition, montage, continuity, sequence, cut, fade in, fade out, dissolve, rhythm, dynamics, pitch, tone, amplitude, sound editing, sound editor Lesson 3 Materials Activity Print DVD Activity A Making a Scene Graphic Organizer 3-9: Editing Decisions None Activity B Understanding Continuity Group Activity 3-7: Time, Continuity, and Meaning None Activity C How Music Communicates Graphic Organizer 3-10: What Is Music Composition? Screening Sheet 3-2: Musical Options for Lawrence of Arabia Film Clip 3-2: Musical Options for Lawrence of Arabia Activity D Sound Effects Graphic Organizer 3-11: What Is Sound? Graphic Organizer 3-12: Visible and Invisible Sounds Screening Sheet 3-3: Sound Bytes Film Clip 3-3: Sound Bytes 67

17 Concept The film editor works with shots. He or she links shots together to form sequences and scenes. A number of factors determine which shots the editor will select and the order in which they will play in the final film. Engage Share the following quotation from director Elia Kazan with students, then use the guided discussion to test their listening and critical-thinking skills. Climaxes in life go clickety-click and they re over. When a film director comes to a crucially important moment, he can stretch it, go from one close-up to another, to the people who are dramatically involved or to the people who are watching the action, back and forth, back and forth. In this way time is stretched for dramatic emphasis. Guided Discussion 1. What do you think the director means when he says climaxes in life go clickety-click and they re over? They happen quickly. 2. How does a director stretch time, in other words, slow it down, during really important scenes in a film? By using close-up shots of the people involved in the action or watching the action. 3. Why would a director want to slow down the time? Why not let the dramatic moments on the screen go clickety-click? To build suspense and get the audience wondering what will happen next, and also to emphasize and perhaps to savor the moment. Explain & Explore Review, if necessary, the film editor s role. (See chapter 2, lesson 4.) Share with students this information about what an editor does in the studio during post-production: A feature-length film of approximately 2 hours running time may generate 20 to 40 hours of raw footage. It is from this raw material that the director and film editor select the shots they think work best to tell the story. Then they assemble them into a rough cut. The rough cut is still not the final film. The director and editor may tighten the pace still more or reshoot a shot or scene. It is all part of the process of telling the story visually, using the best images, the best transitions, and best sound possible. Distribute and display Graphic Organizer 3-9: Editing Decisions to illustrate how the editor, working with the director, makes decisions about assembling the final film. Review the key concepts on the graphic organizer as suggested below. Meaning Poorly lit or poorly acted shots may be easily discarded on the cutting-room floor. But the editor is not just looking at film quality or fine acting when deciding which shots to use. Remind students that a director may shoot the same scene multiple times and may use multiple cameras in different positions. Each camera records the action from a different angle. In the editing room, the director selects which shots to use based on his intended meaning. He or she may decide, for example, to show a reaction shot (see glossary or review if necessary definition as presented in chapter 2, lesson 3, activity B) to convey to the audience that a character is frightened. Or the director may decide to show a long shot at the beginning so that the audience understands just where the action is taking place. Continuity Continuity creates the impression that events flow smoothly in sequence, one after the other. Remind students that a director usually does not photograph a movie in sequence. That task of selecting and combining shots in a logical order happens in the studio. (Students will study continuity in more detail in activity B.) Pacing Pacing is the overall rhythm of the scene. If a scene runs too long, the audience will become bored. If the scene runs too quickly, the audience may not take in all the information the director provides. Either way, the director s intended meaning and effect may fail. Two tools the film editor uses to create a well-paced movie are reel time and transitions. Reel time is the compression or expansion of time. Most movies, though not all, alter time. In some instances, multiple shots and scenes compress time, or shorten it, so that an hour or a month or even years occur on the screen in minutes. 68

18 In other instances, the shots and scenes may extend time, drawing it out for emphasis and suspense. Filmmakers create reel time in the editing room. They may slow time down by adding shots. They may speed time up by using many images cut together, suggesting the passage of time. Transitions are visual effects that bridge one shot or scene and another. One use of transitions is to compress real time into reel time. A montage, for example, is a series of shots spliced together using transitions. Events that in real time might take weeks can be compressed into seconds or minutes on screen. A second use of transitions is to move smoothly from one shot to another, one scene to another. Transitional devices include cuts, where one shot or scene ends abruptly and another begins; fades, where the image evenly appears fades in from a black screen or disappears fades out to a black screen, and dissolves, where one image slowly fades out while another image gradually fades in, or appears. 1 Close Share this information with students: The editor s job of assembling shots into scenes, and scenes into a well-paced story may take as much as three months. At this point, the film is called a rough cut, because even then it is not complete. The final cut may take additional months. Concept Continuity is the arrangement of shots to suggest sequential action. Engage First, write the word continuity on the chalkboard or overhead projector and ask students to write a definition of the word in their notebooks. Do not provide any prompts. After a minute or so, add this second word to the board or projector screen continuous. Ask students to define this word as well. Once they have finished, ask which word was more familiar and therefore easier for them to define. Continuous means uninterrupted in time. Although continuity is related in meaning, in film it refers to the order in which images are arranged. The activity that follows will help students understand film continuity. Explain & Explore On the chalkboard or overhead projector, write these three shots: Jem tells Scout he s got to go back for his pants. Scout waits for Jem, counting to 10. A shotgun blast shatters the silence. Ask students if they recall this scene in the film. It occurs early in act 2, after Jem, Scout, and Dill have been spying on Boo Radley in the Radley backyard. As they escape, Jem s pants get snagged on the wire fencing and he wiggles out of them. Ask what happens next. The answer is that Jem joins Scout and then scurries back to get his pants, returns with his pants, and hurriedly puts them on. For a brief moment, however, between the gunshot and Jem s reappearance unharmed, neither Scout nor the audience knows what has happened to Jem. Now, rearrange the order of the shots and ask students how ordering the shots in this way would change the meaning of the scene. A shotgun blast shatters the silence. Jem tells Scout he s got to go back for his pants. Scout waits for Jem, counting to 10. Ask which arrangement is more suspenseful and why. If the shot occurs before Jem goes for his pants, then the audience doesn t worry that he is the one shot. 69